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Bolon B, Gary JM. Toxicologic Pathology Forum Opinion: Apoptosis/Single Cell Necrosis as a Possible Procedural Effect in Primate Brain Following Ice-Cold Saline Perfusion. Toxicol Pathol 2024:1926233241247044. [PMID: 38661106 DOI: 10.1177/01926233241247044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Nonclinical studies of test articles (TAs) in nonhuman primates are often designed to assess both biodistribution and toxicity. For this purpose, studies commonly use intravenous perfusion of ice-cold (2°C-8°C) saline to facilitate measurements of TA-associated nucleic acids and proteins, after which tissues undergo later fixation by immersion for histological processing and microscopic evaluation. Intriguingly, minimal apoptosis/single cell necrosis (A/SCN) of randomly distributed neural cells is evident in the cerebral cortex and less often the hippocampus in animals from all groups, including vehicle-treated controls. Affected cells exhibit end-stage features such as cytoplasmic hypereosinophilia, nuclear condensation or fragmentation, and shape distortions, so their lineage(s) generally cannot be defined; classical apoptotic bodies are exceedingly rare. In addition, A/SCN is not accompanied by glial reactions, leukocyte infiltration/inflammation, or other parenchymal changes. The severity is minimal in controls but may be slightly exacerbated (to mild) by TA that accumulate in neural cells. One plausible hypothesis explaining this A/SCN exacerbation is that cold shock (perhaps complicated by concurrent tissue acidity and hypoxia) drives still-viable but TA-stressed cells to launch a self-directed death program. Taken together, these observations indicate that A/SCN in brain processed by cold saline perfusion with delayed immersion fixation represents a procedural artifact and not a TA-related lesion.
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Savić Vujović K, Jotić A, Medić B, Srebro D, Vujović A, Žujović J, Opanković A, Vučković S. Ketamine, an Old-New Drug: Uses and Abuses. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 17:16. [PMID: 38276001 PMCID: PMC10820504 DOI: 10.3390/ph17010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Ketamine as an old-new drug has a variety of clinical implications. In the last 30 years, ketamine has become popular for acute use in humans. Ketamine in standard doses is principally utilized for the induction and maintenance of surgical procedures. Besides its use in anesthesia and analgesia, recent studies have shown that ketamine has found a place in the treatment of asthma, epilepsy, depression, bipolar affective disorders, alcohol and heroin addiction. Ketamine primarily functions as a noncompetitive antagonist targeting the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, but its mechanism of action is complex. It is generally regarded as safe, with low doses and short-term use typically not leading to significant adverse effects. Also, ketamine is known as a powerful psychostimulant. During the past decade, ketamine has been one of the commonly abused drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Savić Vujović
- Department of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11129 Belgrade, Serbia; (B.M.); (D.S.); (S.V.)
| | - Ana Jotić
- Clinic for Otorhinolaryngology and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Clinical Center of Serbia, Pasterova 2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Branislava Medić
- Department of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11129 Belgrade, Serbia; (B.M.); (D.S.); (S.V.)
| | - Dragana Srebro
- Department of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11129 Belgrade, Serbia; (B.M.); (D.S.); (S.V.)
| | | | - Janko Žujović
- Clinical Centre of Montenegro, Centre for Abdominal Surgery, 81000 Podgorica, Montenegro;
| | - Ana Opanković
- Clinical Centre of Serbia, Clinic for Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Sonja Vučković
- Department of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11129 Belgrade, Serbia; (B.M.); (D.S.); (S.V.)
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