Ex Vivo and In Vivo Noninvasive Imaging of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibition on Colon Tumorigenesis Using Activatable Near-Infrared Fluorescent Probes

Application of near-infrared fluorescence imaging in theranostics of gastrointestinal tumors

Gastrointestinal cancers have become an important cause of cancer-related death in humans. Improving the early diagnosis rate of gastrointestinal tumors and improving the effect of surgical treatment can significantly improve the survival rate of patients. The conventional diagnostic method is high-definition white-light endoscopy, which often leads to missed diagnosis. For surgical treatment, intraoperative tumor localization and post-operative anastomotic state evaluation play important roles in the effect of surgical treatment. As a new imaging method, near-infrared fluorescence imaging (NIRFI) has its unique advantages in the diagnosis and auxiliary surgical treatment of gastrointestinal tumors due to its high sensitivity and the ability to image deep tissues. In this review, we focus on the latest advances of NIRFI technology applied in early diagnosis of gastrointestinal tumors, identification of tumor margins, identification of lymph nodes, and assessment of anastomotic leakage. In addition, we summarize the advances of NIRFI systems such as macro imaging and micro imaging systems, and also clearly describe the application process of NIRFI from system to clinical application, and look into the prospect of NIRFI applied in the theranostics of gastrointestinal tumors.

PRKAR2A‐derived circular RNAs promote the malignant transformation of colitis and distinguish patients with colitis‐associated colorectal cancer

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Targeted imaging of esophageal adenocarcinoma with a near-infrared fluorescent peptide

BACKGROUND

Targeted optical imaging offers a noninvasive and accurate method for the early detection of gastrointestinal tumors, especially for flat appearances. In our previous study, a sequence of SNFYMPL (SNF) was identified as a specific peptide to bind to esophageal carcinoma using phage-display technology. This study aimed to evaluate the tumor-targeting efficacy of Cy5.5-conjugated SNF probe for imaging of esophageal carcinoma in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

The SNF-Cy5.5 probe was synthesized and then identified using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and mass spectrometry (MS). Confocal fluorescence imaging and Flow cytometry analysis were performed to evaluate the binding specificity and the receptor binding affinity of SNF-Cy5.5 to OE33. In vivo imaging was performed to evaluate the targeting ability of SNF-Cy5.5 to esophageal carcinoma.

RESULTS

The confocal imaging and flow cytometry analysis showed that SNF-Cy5.5 bound specifically to the plasma membrane of OE33 cells with a high affinity. In vivo, for non-block group, SNF-Cy5.5 probe exhibited rapid OE33 tumor targeting during 24 h p.i. and excellent tumor-to-background contrast at 2 h p.i. For the block group, SNF-Cy5.5 was not observed in the mice after 4 h p.i. Ex vivo imaging also revealed that a higher fluorescent signal intensity value of the tumors was clearly observed in the non-block group than that in the block group (2.6 ± 0.32 × 10⁹ vs. 0.8 ± 0.08 × 10⁹, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

SNF-Cy5.5 was synthesized and characterized with a high efficiency and purity. The higher affinity, specificity, and tumor targeting efficacy of SNF-Cy5.5 were confirmed by in vitro and in vivo tests. SNF-Cy5.5 is a promising optical probe for the imaging of esophageal adenocarcinoma.

Paradigms in Fluorescence Molecular Imaging: Maximizing Measurement of Biological Changes in Disease, Therapeutic Efficacy, and Toxicology/Safety

Fluorescence molecular imaging (MI) is an important concept in preclinical research that focuses on the visualization of cellular and biological function in a non-invasive fashion to better understand in vivo disease processes and treatment effects. MI differs fundamentally from traditional preclinical imaging strategies in that it generally relies on reporter probes specific for particular targets or pathways that can be used to reveal biological changes in situ, at the site(s) of disease. In contrast, the more established imaging modalities, like magnetic resonance imaging, X-ray, micro X-ray computed tomography, and ultrasound, historically have relied primarily on late-stage anatomical or physiologic changes. The practical application of fluorescence MI, however, has drifted somewhat from the emphasis on quantifying biology, and based on the publication record, it now appears to include any imaging in which a probe or contrast agent is used to non-invasively acquire in vivo endpoint information. Unfortunately, the mere use of a defined biologically specific probe, in the absence of careful study design, does not guarantee that any useful biological information is actually gained, although often useful endpoint results still can be achieved. This review proposes to add subcategories of MI, termed MI biological assessment (or MIBA), that emphasize a focus on obtaining early and clear biological changes associated with disease development, therapeutic efficacy, and drug-induced tissue changes. Proper selection of probes and careful study design are critical for maximizing the non-invasive assessment of in vivo biological changes, and applications of these critical elements are described.

Optical and Optoacoustic Imaging

The spatiotemporal determination of molecular events and cells is important for understanding disease processes, especially in oncology, and thus for the development of novel treatments. Equally important is the knowledge of the biodistribution, localization, and targeted accumulation of novel therapies as well as monitoring of tumor growth and therapeutic response. Optical imaging provides an ideal versatile platform for imaging of all these problems and questions.

Near-Infrared Fluorescent Activated Polymeric Probe for Imaging Intraluminal Colorectal Cancer Tumors

Detection and removal of preneoplastic tumors is crucial for successful colorectal cancer (CRC) therapy. Here we describe the design of a Cathepsin B (CB)-activated polymeric probe, P-(GGFLGK-IR783), for imaging CRC tumors established by intrarectal or subcutaneous (s.c.) implantation of human colon cancer cells (SW-480 and HT-29) in mice. Multiple copies of the near-infrared fluorescent (NIRF) dye IR783 were attached to a single HPMA copolymer backbone via a CB-cleavable linker (GFLG), and the influence of the dye loading on the fluorescence quenching and activation by CB was assessed in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo. The optimal dose and dosing regimen of P-(GGFLGK-IR783) for colonic tumor detection was determined. Increasing the IR783 loading in the copolymer from 2.5 to 20 mol % resulted in quenching of the fluorescence signal that was activated in vitro by the action of CB from different origins. Following intravenous administration, P-(GGFLGK-IR783)_7.5% preferentially accumulated in intrarectal and s.c. implanted tumors, allowing tumor visualization after 4 h and even 48 h postadministration. Activation of P-(GGFLGK-IR783)_7.5% by CB was clearly detected in s.c. implanted tumors, revealing about a 4-fold increase in the fluorescence signal in tumors vs healthy colon tissue. The probe containing the CB-cleavable linker produced higher fluorescence signal intensity in tumors, relative to the noncleavable probe. These results indicate that P-(GGFLGK-IR783)_7.5% may aid in detecting CRC tumors and can help to guide selective removal of polyps during colonoscopic procedures.

Sensors for Proteolytic Activity Visualization and Their Application in Animal Models of Human Diseases

Various sensors designed for optical and photo(opto)acoustic imaging in living systems are becoming essential components of basic and applied biomedical research. Some of them including those developed for determining enzyme activity in vivo are becoming commercially available. These sensors can be used for various fluorescent signal detection methods: from whole body tomography to endoscopy with miniature cameras. Sensor molecules including enzyme-cleavable macromolecules carrying multiple quenched near-infrared fluorophores are able to deliver their payload in vivo and have long circulation time in bloodstream enabling detection of enzyme activity for extended periods of time at low doses of these sensors. In the future, more effective "activated" probes are expected to become available with optimized sensitivity to enzymatic activity, spectral characteristics suitable for intraoperative imaging of surgical field, biocompatibility and lack of immunogenicity and toxicity. New in vivo optical imaging methods such as the fluorescence lifetime and photo(opto)acoustic imaging will contribute to early diagnosis of human diseases. The use of sensors for in vivo optical imaging will include more extensive preclinical applications of experimental therapies. At the same time, the ongoing development and improvement of optical signal detectors as well as the availability of biologically inert and highly specific fluorescent probes will further contribute to the introduction of fluorescence imaging into the clinic.

Molecular imaging within the lower gastrointestinal tract: From feasibility to future

Molecular imaging is based on the labelling of defined molecular targets through the utilization of fluorescently linked probes and their subsequent detection with high-resolution endoscopic devices, thereby enabling visualization of single molecules including receptors. Whereas early studies have used molecular imaging for improved visualization and detection of early dysplasia and cancer as well as for assessing intestinal inflammation and inflammation-associated cancer within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, more recent studies have impressively demonstrated that molecular imaging can also be used to characterize and visualize the molecular fingerprint of cancer and inflammation in vivo and in real time. With this, molecular imaging can be used to guide expression-tailored individualized therapy. With the rapid expansion and diversification of the repertoire of biological agents utilized in inflammatory bowel disease and cancer, this approach is gaining increasing attention. Within this review, we first summarize the technical components commonly used for molecular imaging and then review preclinical and clinical studies and evolving clinical applications on molecular imaging within the lower GI tract. Molecular imaging has the potential to significantly change endoscopic diagnosis and subsequent targeted therapy of gastrointestinal cancer and chronic gastrointestinal diseases.

Optical in vivo imaging detection of preclinical models of gut tumors through the expression of integrin αVβ3

Optical imaging and Fluorescent Molecular Tomography (FMT) are becoming increasingly important for the study of different preclinical models of cancer, providing a non-invasive method for the evaluation of tumor progression in a relatively simple and fast way. Intestinal tumors, in particular colorectal cancer (CRC), represent a major cause of cancer-related death in Western countries: despite the presence of a number of preclinical models of intestinal carcinogenesis, there is a paucity of information about the possibility to detect intestinal tumors using fluorescent probes and optical in vivo imaging. Herein, we identify the detection of integrin αvβ3 by FMT and optical imaging as an effective approach to assess the occurrence and progression of intestinal carcinogenesis in genetic and chemically-induced mouse models. For this purpose, a commercially available probe (IntegriSense), recognizing integrin αvβ3, was injected in APC^+/min mice bearing small intestinal adenomas or CRC: FMT analysis allowed a specific tumor detection, further confirmed by subsequent ex vivo imaging or conventional histology. In addition, IntegriSense detection by FMT allowed the longitudinal monitoring of tumor growth. Taken together, our data indicate the possibility to use integrin αvβ3 for the visualization of intestinal tumors in preclinical models.