HIV-Related Stigma Among Youth Living With HIV in Western Uganda

We present an explanatory theory for HIV-related stigma from the perspectives of youth living with HIV/AIDS (YLWHA) in Western Uganda, on which the fight against this relentless stigma in this age group and locality can be founded. A constant comparative method was used to analyze textual data from in-depth interviews with 35 YLWHA, selected from three health facilities. A stigma process model for YLWHA was developed with the stigmatizing feelings and behaviors as the core category. Concepts delineating causes, consequences, and moderators of HIV-related stigma emerged from the data to complete the stigma process. The specific focus on YLWHA and contextual characteristics adds new dimensions to the understanding of HIV-related stigma that are scant in existing HIV-related stigma models. In light of our findings, research is necessary to identify context-specific strategies to overcome the deep-rooted causes of stigmatizing views and behaviors in all social spheres of YLWHA within Western Uganda.

Peer Interactions and Sociometric Status of High School Students with Moderate or Severe Disabilities in General Education Classrooms

We examined the social status of six high school students with moderate or severe disabilities in general education cooking classes and compared their social interaction behaviors with those of peers without disabilities. The peers without disabilities who participated were selected from an “average” group based on peer nomination sociometric assessments. Results showed that the social status of the students with disabilities varied. Although no participating students with disabilities were classified as “popular” among their peers, the majority of the participating students with disabilities obtained “average” social status ratings. Results also indicated that students with disabilities were involved in fewer social interactions, interacted with peers without disabilities slightly more often than with adults, and were more often passive participants in interactions. Future studies should examine peer interactions and peer acceptance of students with moderate or severe disabilities in more academic classes, as well as factors that impact their social status and social relationships in inclusive environments.

Creating Socially Supportive Environments for Fully Included Students who Experience Multiple Disabilities

This investigation analyzed the effectiveness of an intervention designed to facilitate the social inclusion of three students who experienced significant physical and intellectual challenges and, for two students, dual sensory impairments. The children were full-time members of two first-grade and one fourth-grade classrooms. The individualized intervention package included three major components: (a) provision of ongoing information to classmates about the communication system, adaptive equipment, and educational activities of the students with disabilities in the context of naturally occurring interactions between the students and their classmates or during “club” meetings; (b) identification and utilization of various media that could serve as the basis for interactive exchanges between the focus students and others; and (c) ongoing facilitation by educational staff of social exchanges between students and their classmates through the establishment of a “buddy” system, arrangement of interactive activities across the day, and prompting and interpreting communicative exchanges when necessary. All aspects of intervention were implemented by educational staff including general education and inclusion support teachers, paraprofessionals, and related service personnel. An analysis of the interactive patterns between the focus students and others indicated that when the intervention was fully implemented, there were increases in (a) reciprocal interactions with peers, (b) focus student-initiated interactions, and (c) focus student-initiated interactions that were comments (with no increase in requests or protests). In addition, there were decreases in assistive interactions with paraprofessionals. The social validity of changes in interactive patterns between the focus students and their classmates was established through interviews with the students' friends and their teachers.

Using Nondisabled Peers to Support the Inclusion of Students with Disabilities at the Junior High School Level

Qualitative research methods were used to conduct a study of an inclusion program at a junior high school in which typically developing students assisted and supported students with moderate and severe disabilities as they attended general education classrooms. There were two purposes for conducting this case study: first, to provide a description of how one school, with limited resources available, successfully included students with disabilities in general education classrooms; and second, to describe outcomes perceived to be associated with the student aide program for the students with disabilities and the student aides. Data were gathered over 2 years and included ethnographic field notes and interviews. The perceived outcomes that emerged from an analysis of these data are discussed in terms of their implications for future practice and research.

High School Students Attitudes about and Recommendations for Their Peers with Significant Disabilities

The present study addresses the impact that placement and service models have had on nondisabled high school student attitudes. Negative attitudes have been a frequently identified barrier to participation, interactions and acceptance. 1413 typical students from two high schools, one inclusive and one traditional self-contained, were surveyed regarding their attitudes toward peers with disabilities and their recommendations for inclusive education. Results suggest that experiences in school significantly impact students' recommendations about the implementation of inclusive education.

The Effects of Peer Delivered Self-Monitoring Strategies on the Participation of Students with Severe Disabilities in General Education Classrooms

This study investigated the effects of self-monitoring instruction delivered by peer tutors on the occurrence of academic survival skills displayed by five middle school students with severe disabilities. We employed a multiple baseline across subjects design. Instruction was provided in general education content classes. The students were taught to indicate on a self-recording sheet if they performed each of 11 skills. Data revealed an increase in the percentages of occurrence of survival skills across all students. Also, their general education teachers indicated that they observed a positive change for four of the five students. All students indicated that they believed that they were part of the class and reported an increase in their classroom participation. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Varied Meanings and Practice: Teachers' Perspectives regarding High School Inclusion

This study examines teachers perspectives in a ninth grade class that included students with disabilities in regular classes. Observations and interviews yielded data on how the teachers thought about inclusion of students with disabilities in their classes, and how they thought about a student with Down syndrome who was also in their class at the time of the study. Data collected over 7 months of a school year included variability in the interpretations and practice of inclusion and varied expectations for some students with disabilities. Teachers who supported inclusion of the student with Down syndrome differed in their expectations of him and the other students with and without disabilities. Variable standards for classroom attendance was a primary example. Findings suggest the importance of further research into the meanings and practices of inclusion as they relate to perceived purposes of schooling, the application of structures supporting inclusion in high schools, and the merging of social and academic goals for high school students with severe disabilities.

Adolescents with Severe Disabilities: Family, School, and Community Integration

Results of a study focusing on family, school, and community integration are provided herein. The study was comprised of 151 parents of adolescents with severe disabilities who completed written measures and responded to interview questions about their children and families. Results indicated that the adolescents primarily participated in family and home activities, with less frequent participation in school and community functions. Families were concerned with planning for future vocational and independent living experiences for their adolescent children, although more than half of the parents reported that obtaining a job and living outside the home in the future would be unlikely. The results of regression analyses indicated that both child characteristics and family variables play a predominant role in predicting an adolescent's level of integration in home and community, with only child characteristics predicting school integration.

From Enrollment to Membership: “Belonging” in Middle and High School Classes

This study examined the meaning of “belonging” or membership in four secondary level general education classes. One or two students with moderate or severe disabilities were enrolled in each of these classes. Participant observations and interviews were used to gain an understanding of participation and membership from the perspectives of students without disabilities who attended these classes. Findings indicated that student membership depends on affiliation with a subgroup of peers within the class. General class participation and interactions influenced an individual's status within the group, but were not enough to create member status. General education students also reported taking active steps when they joined a class to get connected with a subgroup. In these classes, only two students with disabilities connected with subgroups and were, therefore, viewed as members. Considerations are offered for promoting classroom membership for students with moderate or severe disabilities.

Curriculum and Instruction in General Education: Implications for Service Delivery and Teacher Preparation

Despite the many reports describing the benefits of inclusive education, there is a lack of information on the instructional strategies and behavior change procedures that general educators use to facilitate skills development. Also, there is not much information on the procedures used to analyze student performance data. Additionally, limited information has been reported on the curricular domains and skills that educators value for instructing students with severe and other disabilities. With this information, better implementation of effective instructional practices in general education may be achieved. To address this issue, survey input from samples of general and special educators across two states was obtained. The findings suggested that general education teachers reported using many, but not all, behavior analytic instructional strategies considered to be best practice. In addition, special educators regarded social interactions and friendships and self-determination skills the most important skills for successful inclusion.

The Impact of Typical Peers on the Perceived Happiness of Students with Profound Multiple Disabilities

This study evaluated the effect of the type of peer group on behaviors associated with the happiness of five students with profound multiple disabilities. An alternating treatments design (ATD) was used to compare students' happiness behaviors (smiles, eyes open) during small group activities conducted with peers with disabilities and typical peers. Teacher behavior, time of day, position of the child, materials, activities, number of peers in each group, and the peers comprising the groups for each condition were controlled. Results indicated higher levels of happiness behaviors with typical peers than with peers with disabilities across all five students. Implications for placement and instruction are discussed.

Placement along the Continuum of Services and its Impact on Students' Social Relationships

To better understand the conditions facilitating social relationships, we studied the impact of educational placement on the social life of students with severe disabilities. Several indicator variables were used to assess students' social relationships, including measures of social contacts, social support behaviors, and friendship networks. Placement at two points along the continuum of services—general education and self-contained classrooms—constituted the independent variables under study. Two matched groups of students with severe disabilities, one from each placement type, served as participants. The results from direct observation and interviews indicated that: (a) students placed in general education had higher levels of social contact with peers without disabilities; (b) students in general education received higher levels of social support from others, as well as provided higher levels of social support; and (c) those students had substantially larger friendship networks composed primarily of peers without disabilities. Implications regarding the impact of the continuum of services on students' social lives are discussed, along with general issues relating to the development and maintenance of social relationships.

Differences between High School Students Who Do and Do Not Volunteer to Participate in a Peer Interaction Program

We examined the differences between two groups of general education high school students: Those who volunteered to participate in a peer buddy program designed to increase their social interactions with their peers with severe disabilities ( n = 30), and those who chose not to volunteer ( n = 30). Differences were examined using the Social Distance Questionnaire for Attitudes of High School Students Toward Handicapped Persons. Analyses indicated that, at pre-test, peer buddies reported significantly greater willingness to interact with people with severe disabilities and more previous contact with these individuals than did nonvolunteers. There were no differences between the scores of the groups on knowledge of disability or affect toward persons with disabilities. After one semester of enrollment in the program, social willingness, knowledge, and contact scores of peer buddies increased significantly, whereas the scores of nonvolunteers remained the same as at the pre-test. In addition, students' self-reported previous contact with individuals with disabilities positively correlated with their scores indicating their social willingness to interact with their peers with disabilities. Implications of the study are discussed with respect to benefits of and recommendations for peer interaction programs.

Supporting High School Students to Engage in Recreational Activities with Peers

The authors investigated the effects of an intervention package to support five high school students with extensive support-needs to initiate and engage in recreational activities with general-education peers in their physical education classes. The intervention components were (a) assessing participants’ recreational activity goals, (b) teaching self-prompting using a picture book, (c) programming common stimuli, and (d) asking participants to assess daily performance and evaluate daily goal achievement. The intervention was associated with increases in participants’ initiation of and engagement in recreational activities with general-education peers, as well as increases in ratings of quality of interaction. In addition, participants typically assessed with accuracy their performance of recreational activities and whether they had achieved their recreational goals. Findings are discussed with respect to future research and practice.

Validation of an inventory of best practices in the provision of augmentative and alternative communication services to students with severe disabilities in general education classrooms

PURPOSE

To compile and then validate a set of evidence-based best practices related to augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) and its role in fostering the inclusion of students with severe disabilities in general education classrooms and other inclusive settings.

METHOD

A comprehensive review of the literature pertaining to AAC and inclusive education for students with severe disabilities in inclusive classrooms resulted in an inventory of possible best practices. Reliability testing was conducted to verify levels of evidence assigned to each source and corresponding practice. Practices were reviewed and validated by a panel of 8 experts. Statistical analysis revealed a high level of internal consistency across items composing the inventory.

RESULTS

An inventory of 91 practices, each assigned to 1 of 8 predetermined categories, was uncovered. Themes arising in experts' comments related to items in the inventory are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

Possible uses of the inventory are discussed along with suggestions for future research.

A comparison of the social competence of children with moderate intellectual disability in inclusive versus segregated school settings

This is the first study to compare the social competence of children with moderate intellectual disability in inclusive versus segregated school settings in the Republic of Ireland. A convenience sample was recruited through two large ID services. The sample comprised 45 children across two groups: Group 1 (n=20; inclusive school) and Group 2 (n=25; segregated school). Parents and teachers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Adaptive Behaviour Scale-School: 2nd edition. A series of 2 x 2 ANOVAs were carried out on social competence scores using educational placement type (inclusive vs segregated school) and proxy rater (parent vs teacher) as the independent variables. Key findings indicated that children in inclusive schools did not differ significantly from children in segregated schools on the majority of proxy ratings of social competence. This supports the belief that children with intellectual disabilities can function well in different educational settings. Present findings highlight the importance of utilising the functional model of ID when selecting and designing school placements for children with moderate ID.

Social relationships and friendships of children with developmental disabilities: implications for inclusive settings. A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The engagement of children with developmental disabilities (DD) in social relationships with typically developing peers has become increasingly important as inclusive practices have become more the norm than the exception. This paper provides an overview of the research on social relationships between these two groups.

METHOD

Studies were included if they provided a naturalistic examination of the relationships between children with DD (from the age of 3 years to school exit) and peers they have met in school or in age-appropriate educational settings.

RESULTS

A total of 36 studies are reviewed, providing a framework for analysis of the relevant research, with a particular focus on implications for inclusive settings. Three specific areas are addressed: (a) features of social relationships; (b) types of social relationships and roles assumed by the individuals involved; and (c) the existence and nature of friendship within these relationships.

CONCLUSION

Research on relationships between children with DD and their peers in inclusive settings is patchy, limited in context, and non-linear in its development. Directions for future research are discussed, together with a range of methodological issues that should be considered.

Social interaction interventions for youth with severe disabilities should emphasize interdependence

An emphasis on independence may be limiting the outcomes achieved by social interaction research. Given the lack of correlation between intellectual or adaptive functioning level and meaningful social outcomes for people with severe disabilities, a focus on increasing skills as a mechanism for increasing social outcomes seems misplaced (or, at least, inefficient). It is argued here that a more productive route for researchers to follow will be to emphasize interdependence. Implications of such a focus will change where interventions are implemented, curricular foci, and the types of instructional strategies used to improve the social life of youth with severe disabilities. MRDD Research Reviews 7:122-127, 2001.

Identifying critical social interaction behaviors among high school students with and without disabilities

This article describes an investigative process used to identify critical behaviors that relate to social interaction among high school students with and without disabilities. A series of studies resulted in the identification of six empirically and socially validated conversational behaviors that could serve as targets of interventions designed to increase social interaction. Findings also indicated that little social interaction occurred among high school students with and without mental retardation in the absence of programming or supports. Implications of the findings are discussed as well as suggestions for future research. Finally, a model for social skills interventions is proposed that may result in increased social interaction among students with and without disabilities.

Academic effects of providing peer support in general education classrooms on students without disabilities

We studied the academic effects on peers without disabilities of serving as peer supports for students with disabilities in general education classrooms. Three peers were studied using a range of indicators, including academic engagement, coursework performance, and social validity assessments. Peers assisting a student with disabilities via curricular adaptation, assignment completion, and social facilitation constituted the multicomponent independent variable. We used withdrawal or multiple baseline designs to demonstrate positive benefits for peers for all measures used. In addition, follow-up data for 2 peers indicated that the positive changes associated with serving as a peer support were maintained for up to 2 months. Our results are discussed in relation to the possible academic and social effects of providing peer supports in general education classrooms for students with and without disabilities.

Transition to living: the neglected component of transition programming for individuals with learning disabilities

The purpose of this article is to document the need for assisting individuals with learning disabilities (LD) to transition to adult life, with particular emphasis on aspects of adult life other than employment and postsecondary education. The adult roles emphasized are maintaining a home, becoming appropriately involved in the community (including recreation and leisure activities), and experiencing satisfactory personal and social relationships. The first section of this article reviews the results of major studies on the adult adjustment of individuals with LD, and discusses these individuals' learning characteristics. The second component briefly highlights existing models of career education and life skills education. The third section focuses on current practices in programming for adolescents with LD; and the final section proposes steps that must be taken if we are to more effectively help these individuals in their transition to all aspects of adult life.