The relationship between employment status and depression symptomatology among women at risk for postpartum depression

Factors associated with postpartum fatigue: an exploration of the moderating role of resilience

Background

Postpartum fatigue (PPF) can impair the physical and mental well-being of women. The aims of this study were to assess the associations between fatigue and maternal health-related variables, specifically, sleep quality, depression symptoms, and resilience, and to explore the moderating role of resilience in the relationships between sleep quality, depression symptoms, and fatigue.

Methods

This cross-sectional study used data collected from mothers during the postpartum period via an online platform. PPF was assessed using the Fatigue Severity Scale, whereas sleep quality and depression symptoms were assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, respectively. The Brief Resilience Scale was used to assess resilience. Simple and multiple binary logistic regression analyses were performed to examine the association of each independent variable with PPF and to determine the most significant predictors of PFF. The data were analyzed using SPSS, and structural equation modeling was performed using AMOS 23. A moderation analysis was performed to explore the moderating role of resilience using the Hayes PROCESS macro.

Results

A total of 1,443 postpartum mothers were included in the analysis. The simple binary logistic regression analysis showed that having chronic disease (odds: 1.52; p = 0.02), mother's age (odds: 0.97; p = 0.03), mother's body mass index (BMI; odds: 1.03; p = 0.01), depression symptoms (odds: 1.09; p ≤ 0.0001), sleep quality (odds: 1.17; p ≤ 0.0001), and resilience (odds: 0.42; p ≤ 0.0001) all contributed to fatigue during postpartum. Multivariate logistic regression showed that the mother's BMI, sleep quality, depression symptoms, and resilience were significant predictors of PPF. Moderation analyses showed that resilience was not a significant moderator between the main effects of sleep quality and fatigue (interaction effect: β = 0.01, p = 0.31, 95% CI: -0.01 to 0.04) or between the main effects of depression symptoms and fatigue during postpartum (interaction effect: β = 0.01, p = 0.82, 95% CI: -0.01 to 0.02).

Conclusion

Given the deleterious effects of PPF on maternal health outcomes, factors associated with PPF should be assessed regularly. In addition to mothers' BMI, sleep quality, and depression symptoms, resilience could also be a crucial factor in predicting fatigue severity during this critical time for mothers even though it was not a significant moderator among this sample.

Family-friendly work conditions and well-being among Malaysian women

BACKGROUND

Although participation in paid work improves women's quality of life and well-being, the health benefits decline for women with young children. Implementing family-friendly work conditions is one strategy for improving working women's well-being, especially those with competing unpaid work responsibilities.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the extent to which accessibility and use of 11 specific family-friendly work conditions were associated with physical health, anxiety and depression in Malaysian women with young children.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional design using a retrospective self-complete, anonymous, online survey was conducted between March and October 2021.

METHODS

Women with a child aged 5 years or less (N = 190) completed an online survey measuring their exposure (availability and use) to 11 specific family-friendly work conditions, and their physical health, anxiety, and depression. The sample included women who were currently and recently working and with both formal and informal employment.

RESULTS

After accounting for potential confounders, women who used paid maternity leave have a lower likelihood of having anxiety symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Future research is needed to extend the findings from this study by over-sampling women who are informally employed and not currently working. Policy creation and development processes, including research and decision-making, should be led by and inclusive of women. For example, research funding could be allocated to 'lived experience' research that privileges the co-design of research with consumers. Based on these findings, the extent to which family-friendly work conditions fulfill their intent to improve the well-being for working women requires further critique.

The prevalence and risk factors of postpartum depression among women during the early postpartum period: a retrospective secondary data analysis

OBJECTIVE

Postpartum depression (PPD) is common and detrimental affecting both maternal health and child development. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence and factors of PPD screened immediately after delivery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrospective study design using secondary data analysis is applied. Four years of data, containing linkable maternal, neonate and PPD screen records between 2014 and 2018, was retrieved and combined from the electronic medical systems of MacKay Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. For each woman, the PPD screen record contained self-reported depressive symptoms assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) within 48-72 h after delivery. A set of factors pertaining to maternal, pregnancy and obstetric, neonatal and breastfeeding were selected from the combined data set.

RESULTS

In total, 10.2% (1244 of 12,198) of women reported with the symptoms of PPD (EPDS ≥10). Through logistic regression analysis, eight predictors of PPD were identified. Specifically, PPD was shown to be associated with educational level of high school or lower (odds ratio (OR) = 1.57, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.27-1.93), marital status of unmarried (OR = 1.52, 95% CI 1.18-1.99), unemployed (OR = 1.26, 95% CI 1.11-1.42), Cesarean section (OR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.5-1.93), unplanned pregnancy (OR = 1.38, 95% CI = 1.22-1.57), gestational age at 24-36 weeks (OR = 1.3, 95% CI 1.08-1.56), non-intention of breastfeeding (OR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.18-2.45) and Apgar at 5 min < 7 (OR = 2.18, 95% CI 1.11-4.29).

CONCLUSION

Low educational level, unmarried, unemployed, Caesarean section, unplanned pregnancy, preterm delivery, not breastfeeding and low Apgar at 5 min are predictors for postpartum women to develop PPD. These predictors are easily recognized in the clinical environment for patient guidance, support and referral as early as possible to ensure the health and well-being of the mothers and the neonates.

The relationship between fatigue, sleep quality, resilience, and the risk of postpartum depression: an emphasis on maternal mental health

BACKGROUND

Several factors can contribute to the development of postpartum depression (PPD) and negatively affect mothers' mental and physical well-being. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between fatigue, sleep quality, resilience, and the risk of PPD development.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted using an online questionnaire distributed to mothers during their postpartum period. The risk of PPD was assessed using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), postpartum fatigue (PPF) was assessed using the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS), sleep quality was assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and resilience was assessed using the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS). The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the relationship between the study variables. Simple and multiple linear regression analyses were performed to explain the contributions of PPF, sleep quality, and resilience as independent predictors of PPD development.

RESULTS

A total of 1409 postpartum women were included in the analysis, with 75% of the participants reporting a risk of PPD, 61% reporting PPF, 97% reporting having sleep problems, and 36% being in the "low resilience level" category. In terms of correlations, the scores of FSS and the PSQI showed moderate positive relationships with the EPDS scores (r = 0.344 and r = 0.447, respectively, p = .000). The BRS scores were negatively associated with the EPDS scores (r = -0.530, p = 0.000). Fatigue, sleep quality, and resilience were predictors of depressive symptoms (β = 0.127, β = 0.262, and β = -0.393, respectively, R² = 0.37, p = 0.000). The association remained significant in the regression model after adjusting for mother's age, mother's BMI, child's age, smoking status, full-term pregnancy, having a chronic disease, and taking anti-depressant.

CONCLUSIONS

Mothers with higher levels of fatigue, poor sleep quality, and low resilience levels were at high risk of developing PPD. Healthcare providers should identify these factors and thus set better rehabilitation goals to improve overall maternal health.

Associations between breastfeeding intention, breastfeeding practices and post-natal depression during the COVID-19 pandemic: A multi-country cross-sectional study

Associations between breastfeeding intention, duration and post-natal depression (PND) have been shown in pre-COVID-19 studies. However, studies during COVID-19 have not examined the associations between breastfeeding intention, breastfeeding practices, and PND in an international sample of post-natal women, taking into consideration COVID-19 related factors. This is the first study to address this gap as both PND and breastfeeding may be affected by COVID-19, and have important long-term effects on women's and infant's health. A cross-sectional internet-based survey was conducted with 3253 post-natal women from five countries: Brazil, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, and the United Kingdom from July to November 2021. The results showed that women who intended to breastfeed during pregnancy had lower odds of having PND than women who did not intend to. Women who had no breastfeeding intention but actually breastfed had greater odds (AOR 1.75) of having PND than women who intended to breastfeed and actually breastfed. While there was no statistical significance in expressed breast milk feeding in multivariable logistic regression models, women who had shorter duration of breastfeeding directly on breast than they planned had greater odds (AOR 1.58) of having PND than those who breastfed longer than they planned even after adjusting for covariates including COVID-19-related variables. These findings suggested the importance of working with women on their breastfeeding intention. Tailored support is required to ensure women's breastfeeding needs are met and at the same time care for maternal mental health during and beyond the pandemic.

Postpartum depression among first-time Jordanian mothers: levels and associated factors

Postpartum depression among first-time mothers is a sensitive issue and few studies were conducted related to this topic in developing countries including Jordan. Thus, this study purposed to assess postpartum depression levels and associated factors among Jordanian first-time mothers. A cross-sectional design was adopted, and 193 postpartum first-time mothers living in Amman governorate were recruited. A questionnaire consisting of two parts was used to record data, sociodemographic and maternal health, and Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Findings showed that 34.1% of the women experienced postpartum depression. The employment, gravida, antenatal health problems, breastfeeding problems, newborn health problems, and availability of assistance during the postpartum period significantly correlated with postpartum depression. Thus, the understanding of postpartum depression and related factors would provide important empirical evidence for healthcare professionals and policy-makers when planning to develop strategies and measures to minimize postpartum depression among first-time mothers.

Mode of Delivery Is Associated with Postpartum Depression: Do Women with and without Depression History Exhibit a Difference?

Whether the mode of birth delivery correlates with the incidence of postpartum depression (PPD) is still under debate. This study seeks to clarify such a correlation and to further investigate if there are any differences in the likelihood of PPD medical care use among women with and without a history of depression. A logistic regression at two assessment points (6-month and 12-month postpartum) on the National Health Insurance Database in Taiwan is performed. In total, 32,729 women were included who gave first birth from 2007 to 2011 via cesarean section (CS), elective CS, and vaginal delivery, of whom 3580 (10.9%) were diagnosed with a history of depression. Findings show that CS was associated with a higher likelihood of PPD doctor visits regardless of whether the women have a history of depression or not, but elective CS tended to have different impacts for these two groups of women. Mentally healthy women who experienced elective CS had 1.36- and 1.64-times higher risk of PDD medical care use than those who delivered vaginally, whereas previous depressive women undertaking an elective cesarean birth had no significant difference observed in incidences. A notably higher risk of elective CS delivery versus vaginal delivery for mentally healthy women suggests that elective CS is not clinically appropriate, yet it might be an alternative to vaginal delivery with careful counseling for pregnant women who experience a history of depression.

Body Image Dissatisfaction as a Risk Factor for Postpartum Depression

Background and Objectives: Pregnancy and postpartum are periods that imply numerous physical and psychological changes that could lead to mental health consequences. The aim of the present study is to identify whether women who had body image dissatisfaction had a higher incidence of postpartum depression 6 months after birth than women who did not have body image dissatisfaction. Materials and Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was designed with a sample of 450 women from two hospitals in Andalusia. Quantitative variables were age and scores on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ) for body image dissatisfaction. The qualitative variables used were marital status, self-perceived health status, diet or physical exercise, type of delivery, and others. Results: Body dissatisfaction was positively correlated with the symptomatology of postpartum depression. Thus, for each point increased in body dissatisfaction, the occurrence of depression also increased. There was a relationship between the study variables, so women who were more dissatisfied with their body image were more frequently depressed. Conclusions: In conclusion, it can be established that postpartum depression seems to be related to the presence of poor body image.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Postpartum Depression in Romanian Women during Two Periods of COVID-19 Pandemic

Postpartum depression is a major mental health disorder that can negatively affect both mother and baby. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic associated with extreme measures of the lockdown had profound effects on humanity, increasing the rates of anxiety and depression, especially among women in the postpartum period. The aim of this study was threefold: to determine the prevalence of postpartum depression, to compare the prevalence of postpartum depression at two different times during the COVID-19 pandemic, and to assess a possible association between the timing of childbirth in a given period of the pandemic and the risk of postpartum depression. A cross-sectional study involving 154 women who were interviewed immediately postpartum, using the EPDS scale, was conducted at the Timisoara Municipal Hospital, Romania at two different periods during the COVID-19 pandemic (March−April 2020 during the first wave and August−September 2021 during the fourth wave). The overall prevalence of postpartum depression (EPDS score > 13) was 18.8%, with a statistically significantly higher rate among participants surveyed during the fourth wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Romania; the COVID-19 pandemic represents an impact on women’s mental health in the postpartum period, increasing the risk of developing postpartum depression.

A meta-analysis on burden of postpartum depression and its predictors among lactating women in East African countries from 1998 up to 2018

Objective:

Postpartum depression is a common mental illness that affects lactating women. This not only makes daily activities difficult for them, but it also affects child’s future lives. There is little evidence of about postpartum depression and its factors in East African countries, which piqued the authors’ interest in conducting a study on this matter for future decision- and policy-making.

Methods:

The protocol for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses was followed. To identify published articles, all major databases such as PubMed/MEDLINE, WHOLIS, Cochrane Library, Embase, PsycINFO, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and reference lists were used. In addition, shelves, author contact, Google and Google Scholar were also used to identify unpublished studies. Joanna Briggs Institute—Meta-Analysis of Statistical Assessment and Review Instrument was used for critical appraisal of studies. STATA software version 14 was used for the analysis. The random-effect model was used to estimate postpartum depression with 95% confidence interval, while subgroup analysis and meta-regression were used to identify potential sources of heterogeneity and associated factors, respectively. Furthermore, Egger’s test and trim-and-fill analysis were used to check for publication bias.

Results:

Postpartum depression was found in 24% of lactating women in East African countries (95% confidence interval: 17.79–30.20). Postpartum depression was associated with being married (odds ratio = 2; 95% confidence interval: 1.05–3.81), domestic violence (odds ratio = 6.34; 95% confidence interval: 4:11–9.78), a lack of support (odds ratio = 6.59; 95% confidence interval: 1.98–21.89), and a lack of empowerment (odds ratio = 2.79; 95% confidence interval: 1.12–6.92).

Conclusion:

In East Africa, the prevalence of postpartum depression among lactating women is high and rising, as per global postpartum depression estimates. Therefore, the primary focus should be on women’s domestic violence prevention mechanisms. Existing national policies and development agendas must prioritize strategies for women’s support and empowerment. Future research into the relationship between marriage and postpartum depression is required.

Anxiety and depression among women with COVID-19 infection during childbirth-experience from a tertiary care academic center

BACKGROUND

Pregnancy and postpartum are vulnerable periods for mental health problems and distress. Studies conducted worldwide have highlighted the role of the COVID-19 pandemic in adding to the rates of depression and anxiety in the perinatal period. However, there are very few reports on mothers who were identified as having COVID-19 infection at the time of childbirth.

OBJECTIVE

Our study aimed to find the prevalence of depression and anxiety among pregnant women who were admitted for labor and tested positive for COVID-19 infection. We also aimed to study the association of various sociodemographic, social support, and obstetrical factors and that of COVID-19-related worries with depression and anxiety.

STUDY DESIGN

The study was conducted at the obstetrics inpatient setting in a public hospital in New Delhi, which had a separate designated COVID-19 block. Pregnant and postpartum women >18 years of age who were admitted to the COVID-19 maternity ward for delivery were included for this study. The women were interviewed within the first week of admission and after 6 to 8 weeks of childbirth. The sociodemographic and obstetrical details and COVID-19-related worries and concerns were assessed. Depression and anxiety were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire version 9 and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item Scale, respectively.

The normally distributed variables are expressed as mean±standard deviation and continuous variables with skewed distribution as median (interquartile range). The categorical data presented as proportions of categorical variables were compared using the chi-square or the Fischer exact test. All the tests are 2-sided, with a significance level of 5%. The data were analyzed using the SPSS software version 24. The rates of depression and anxiety were calculated and univariate analysis was done to identify the factors associated with moderate and severe anxiety and depression using various sociodemographic and obstetrical variables, the total COVID anxiety scale scores, and the social support score.

RESULTS

The mean age of the women was 26.86 years (±4.31). Of the 243 women assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire version 9, 168 (69.13%) had mild depressive disorder, and 29 (11.3%) had moderate depressive disorder. Of the 187 women who were assessed at the 6-weeks follow-up, 31 (16.57%) had minimal depression, 131 (70.05%) had mild depression, and 25 (13.36%) had moderate depression. Mild anxiety was seen in 121 cases (49.79%) and 13 (5.34%) had moderate anxiety symptoms. Women reported several worries, especially about the stigma of COVID-19 infection, support for infant care, and access to infant health services.

CONCLUSION

Screening for common mental illnesses with the timely identification of associated risk factors should be done, with a liaison between obstetricians and mental health professionals. Obstetricians can address and reassure pregnant women regarding concerns about contracting the infection, worries about the possible effects of COVID-19 on the fetus and the newborn, and concerns about future consultations. In case the worries are out of proportion and necessitate intervention by mental health professionals, referral services should be made available. Hence, identifying and addressing the mental health concerns will help provide the optimum perinatal care during the pandemic.

Differential Effects of Intuitive and Disordered Eating on Physical and Psychological Outcomes for Women with Young Children

OBJECTIVES

Pressure to lose weight can increase the risk of developing disordered eating behaviours, negative body image and depressive symptomatology. Eating intuitively may counteract these negative outcomes. This research examined the unique relationship between intuitive eating and disordered eating on body mass index (BMI), body image and depressive symptoms for women of young children.

METHODS

A survey of women with a child aged between six and 48 months, included the Intuitive Eating Scale, Eating Attitudes Test-26, Body Shape Questionnaire and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted as an omnibus test to estimate the effect of intuitive and disordered eating on BMI, negative body image and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

Of the 419 sample (M age = 32.06), 32% were classified with disordered and 32% with intuitive eating. MANOVA and regression analysis found disordered eating positively associated with depressive symptoms, (β = 0.303) and negative body image (β = 0.318). Intuitive eating was associated with lower depressive symptoms (β =  - 0.183) and negative body image (β =  - 0.615). Disordered eating (β =  - 0.194) and intuitive eating (β =  - 0.586) both contributed to lower BMI, with the association stronger for intuitive eating.

CONCLUSION

The early parenting period involves a high risk for developing disordered eating behaviours. Eating patterns are modifiable factors, illustrating the potential for positive and preventive health outcomes through adopting intuitive eating behaviours. There is an opportunity for healthcare professionals to promote physical and psychological health including for women in the early parenting period.

Anxiety, depression, and knowledge level in postpartum women during the COVID-19 pandemic

PURPOSE

This study aimed to assess anxiety, depression, and knowledge level in postpartum women during the COVID-19 pandemic.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 212 postpartum women using a web-based online survey in Ankara, Turkey.

FINDINGS

The prevalence of depression was 34.0%. The mean anxiety and COVID-19 knowledge scores were 42.69 ± 9.93 and 9.69 ± 1.94, respectively. There was a statistically significant difference between the anxiety scores and depression status (p < 0.001) of women. There were statistically significant differences between fear about being infected with COVID-19 for themselves (p = 0.01) and for babies (p = 0.01) and the postpartum depression (PPD).

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

During the COVID-19 pandemic, early detection and appropriate and timely intervention to prevent and detect anxiety and PPD are crucial to the well-being of a woman.

An Assessment of the Risk Factors and Concerns of Postpartum Depression among Mothers Seeking Health Care in North Central Trinidad

Background:

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a debilitating mental disorder which affects mainly females usually after giving birth.

Objectives:

We aimed to study the risk factors and concerns of PPD among mothers seeking health care at regional health authority hospitals in Trinidad.

Materials and Methods:

The cross-sectional study consisted of 360 mothers from the postnatal and neonatal clinics of the North Central Regional Health Authority, Trinidad. Data were collected via a questionnaire using convenience sampling to study the risk factors and concerns of PPD among mothers. Participants were asked to sign a consent form before filling out the questionnaire. The questions were geared toward obtaining mother's perspective on predisposing factors of PPD, identifying if they are at risk for perinatal depression, the outcomes of having PPD, and determining if they were screened and treated for it.

Results:

This study comprised 360 postnatal women among which 4.7% were diagnosed with postpartum while 40% scored ≥10 in the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale which indicated a risk for PPD. This research revealed seven significant predictors of PPD: family history of mental illness, baby blues, mood swings during period, use of oral contraceptives, emotional support, life stress, and being diagnosed with depression (P < 0.05). Other characteristics like sociodemographics were not remarkably correlated but marginally indicative of depressive signs.

Conclusion:

The study shows that many risk factors of PPD exist, and screening and treatment should be used to avoid the consequences of PPD.

Effects of a psychological nursing intervention on prevention of anxiety and depression in the postpartum period: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Anxiety and postpartum depression are the most common psychological problems in women after delivery. Cognitive behavior intervention has been reported to have an effect in the therapy of postpartum depression. This research aimed to investigate whether cognitive behavior intervention could prevent the pathogenesis of postpartum depression in primiparous women.

METHODS

In this randomized controlled trial, primiparous women who were prone to postpartum depression were recruited. Participates in the control group received routine postpartum care and those in the intervention group received both routine postpartum care and cognitive behavior intervention. Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD), Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAMA), Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) were evaluated before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

In the intervention group, the post-intervention scores of HAMA, HAMD, EPDS and PSQI were all significantly lower than the baseline scores (p = 0.034, p = 0.038, p = 0.004, p = 0.014, respectively). The proportion of participants with postpartum depression in the intervention group (11.5%) was significantly lower than the control group (24.3%) after the 6-week intervention. Participants in the intervention group were significantly more satisfied with the care than those in the control group (p = 0.032).

CONCLUSION

This research provided evidence that cognitive behavioral intervention in postpartum period could alleviate anxiety and depression in primiparous women, and inhibit the pathogenesis of postpartum depression. Trial registry This clinical trial was registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR2000040076).

Exploring the Vaginal Microbiome and Intravaginal Practices in Postmenopausal Women

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests that intravaginal practices (IVPs) women use to cleanse their vagina or enhance sexual pleasure may be associated with unhealthy changes in the vaginal microbiome (VM). However, the effects of these practices in postmenopausal women are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this pilot study was to characterize the VM communities of postmenopausal women, identify types and frequency of IVPs, and explore associations between the VM and IVPs in postmenopausal women.

METHODS

We analyzed the VM data of 21 postmenopausal women in Atlanta, Georgia, from vaginal swabs collected at a routine gynecological visit. 16S rRNA gene sequencing in the V3-V4 region was used to characterize the VM. In addition, we described the IVPs of these women, identified by using our newly developed instrument: the Vaginal Cleansing Practices Questionnaire. The associations between the VM and IVPs were explored by comparing the alpha diversities, beta diversities, and the relative abundances at both the community level and individual genus level.

RESULTS

The most abundant known bacterial genus found in the VM samples was Lactobacillus (35.7%), followed by Prevotella (21.4%). Eleven women (52%) reported using at least one type of IVP since menopause. The most common type of IVP was soap and water to clean inside the vagina. The use of IVPs was not associated with any alpha diversity metric, including Shannon index, inverse Simpson index, and Chao1 index; beta diversity metric, including Bray-Curtis and Jaccard distances; nor relative abundances at the community and individual genus level. Sociodemographic factors were also not associated with any alpha diversity metric.

DISCUSSION

Clinicians must assess IVPs and other vaginal and sexual hygiene practices of women of all ages to educate and promote healthy behaviors. More than half of the postmenopausal women in this pilot study use IVPs. Understanding the reasoning behind participants' use of IVPs and their perceptions of the possible effects of these practices will require further research. Although the small sample did not show associations with the VM, more extensive studies are warranted.

Precarious working conditions and psychosocial work stress act as a risk factor for symptoms of postpartum depression during maternity leave: results from a longitudinal cohort study

BACKGROUND

The majority of Western women work during their reproductive years, but past research has often neglected the influence of work-related factors on postpartum mental health. Especially postpartum depression (PPD) is an enormous psychological burden for mothers. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the prospective impact of precarious working conditions and psychosocial work stress during pregnancy (such as work-privacy conflict and effort-reward imbalance at the job) on symptoms of maternal PPD.

METHODS

In the prospective-longitudinal cohort study DREAM (DResdner Studie zu Elternschaft, Arbeit und Mentaler Gesundheit), N = 587 employed women were questioned about their work during pregnancy and their mental health 8 weeks after delivery.

RESULTS

Multiple regression analyses revealed that work-privacy conflict, low reward at work, and precarious working conditions significantly predicted symptoms of PPD, even when controlling for lifetime depression, anxiety, education, parity, and age.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that psychosocial work stress and precarious working conditions have important implications for maternal peripartum mental health. They might act as prospective risk factors for PPD during the period of maternal leave. Hence, future research should focus on preventative measures targeting work life.

Do postpartum anxiety and breastfeeding self-efficacy and bonding at early postpartum predict postpartum depression and the breastfeeding method?

We investigated whether postpartum anxiety (PPA) and breastfeeding self-efficacy and bonding at the early postpartum period can be used to predict postpartum depression and the breastfeeding method, and we sought to identify factors related to postpartum depression. Of the 510 eligible women, 185 (36%) returned the questionnaire on all three occasions (1 day, 3 days, and 1 month after childbirth). The mothers' progress on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Breastfeeding Self-Efficacy Scale Short Form (BFSES-SF), and Postnatal Bonding Questionnaire (PBQ) was observed over three periods. A repeated-measures ANOVA revealed that the mothers at high risk of developing postpartum depression (PPD) were those who did not show an increase in BFSES-SF score at early postpartum, and mothers whose bonding disorders have deteriorated rapidly. The results of the logistic regression analysis revealed a significant difference in employment as a factor related to postpartum depression. Compared to Regular, Part-time status was 4.4 times more likely and Unemployed status was 2.3 times more likely to cause postpartum depression. For the early detection of PPD, it is necessary to identify (1) mothers who do not show an increase in the BFSES-SF score, (2) mothers whose bonding disorders have deteriorated rapidly, and (3) part-time or unemployed mothers as characteristic of postpartum depression.

A Comparison of Postpartum Depression in Mothers Conceived by Assisted Reproductive Technology and Those Naturally Conceived

Background

It is thought that mothers who conceive via assisted reproductive technology (ART) may be at greater risk of postpartum depression (PPD) because of the problems and psychological stresses associated with ART treat- ment. The aim of the present study is to determine the occurrence of PPD among mothers who conceive by ART in comparison with mothers who naturally conceive. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to assess PPD.

Materials and Methods

This historical cohort study investigated 406 mothers with infants aged 3-9 months. Three hundred and eight women with natural pregnancies were selected as the control group from mothers who referred to Tehran healthcare centres for infant vaccinations. The ART group consisted of 98 women who conceived via ART at Royan Institute. Participants completed a general questionnaire that asked about education, occupation, number of children, delivery method, history of infant hospitalization, breastfeeding, mothers’ and infants’ ages, cause of infertil- ity (ART group), and history of depression. A validated Persian version of the EPDS was used to measure depressive symptoms.

Results

The mean EPDS score in mothers who naturally conceived was 8.38 ± 0.35 in comparison with mothers who conceived via ART (7.59 ± 0.63). The proportions of women who reported PPD were 26.0% for the control group and 20.4% for the ART group. There was no statistically significant difference in PPD between the control and ART groups (P=0.26).

Conclusion

The occurrence of PPD in mothers who conceived via ART was similar to those who conceived naturally.