Pathogenetic Mechanisms of Deep Infiltrating Endometriosis

MRI of pelvic endometriosis: evaluation of the mr#Enzian classification and the importance of adenomyosis subtypes

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the utility of the #Enzian classification in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for endometriosis assessment, focusing on inter-reader agreement, diagnostic accuracy, and the correlation of adenomyosis with deep endometriosis (DE).

METHODS

This IRB- approved retrospective single-center study included 412 women who underwent MRI evaluation for endometriosis between February 2017 and June 2022. Two experienced radiologists independently analyzed MRI images using the #Enzian classification and assessed the type of adenomyosis, if any. The surgical #Enzian classification served as the gold standard for evaluating preoperative MRI results of 45 patients. Statistical analysis was performed to assess inter-reader agreement and diagnostic accuracy.

RESULTS

Inter-reader agreement was substantial to excellent (Cohen's kappa 0.75-0.96) for most compartments except peritoneal involvement (0.39). The preoperative MRI showed mostly substantial to excellent accuracy (0.84-0.98), sensitivity (0.62-1.00), specificity (0.87-1.00), positive (0.58-1.00) and negative predictive values (0.86-1.00) for most compartments, except for peritoneal lesions (0.36, 0.17, 1.00, 1.00, 0.26 respectively). A trend with a higher prevalence of concordant DE in women with MR features of external adenomyosis compared to those with internal adenomyosis was visible (p = 0.067).

CONCLUSIONS

The mr#Enzian showed mostly high inter-reader agreement and good diagnostic accuracy for various endometriosis compartments. MRI's role is particularly significant in the context of the current paradigm shift towards medical endometriosis treatment. The inclusion of information about the type of adenomyosis in the mr#Enzian classification could enhance diagnostic accuracy and inform treatment planning.

Decreased expression of KLF6 in ectopic endometrial stromal cells contributes to endometriosis progression by targeting CTNNB1

Despite decades of research, endometriosis remains a mysterious gynecological disease with unknown etiology and pathogenesis. Krüppel-like Factor 6 (KLF6), a transcription factor, has a wide expression profile and regulates a variety of biological processes. Here, we investigated the expression and function of KLF6 and its possible regulatory mechanisms in endometriosis. To determine the function of KLF6, knockdown and overexpression experiments were performed in eutopic endometrial stromal cells (EU-ESCs) and ectopic endometrial stromal cells (EC-ESCs), respectively. Cell viability, apoptosis, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis assays were conducted in ESCs. ChIP-sequencing and mRNA-sequencing were performed to investigate the functional mechanism of KLF6 in regulating ESCs. We found that KLF6 was highly expressed in eutopic endometrium of endometriosis patients, compared with ectopic endometrium. Similarly, the same was true in EU-ESCs, which was compared with EC-ESCs. Overexpression of KLF6 significantly suppressed EC-ESC proliferation, migration and invasion and induced cell apoptosis, while knockdown of KLF6 resulted in the opposite effects on EU-ESCs. Overexpression of KLF6 significantly inhibited EC-ESC angiogenesis. Mechanistically, the results of ChIP sequencing and mRNA sequencing revealed that CTNNB1 may be a transcriptional target regulated by KLF6. Reintroduction of KLF6 reversed the effects of KLF6 knockdown on EU-ESCs. KLF6 inhibited the proliferation, migration and angiogenesis of EC-ESCs by inhibiting the expression of CTNNB1. Our findings provided a new perspective on the role of KLF6 in endometriosis progression and inspire potential targeted therapeutic strategies.

Research progress of indocyanine green fluorescence technology in gynecological applications

Indocyanine green is a near-infrared fluorescent dye which is widely used in various fields of surgery and gynecology. It is currently mainly used to detect various malignant tumors, sentinel lymph nodes, endometriosis lesions, ureter or intestinal occlusion, vaginal perfusion, uterine arterial blood perfusion, pelvic nerve, uterine niche, lymphatic edema, metastatic lesion shadow, and so on, providing new methods for decision-making during surgery. This article elaborates the application progress of indocyanine green fluorescence technology in gynecology.

Evaluation of Deeply Infiltrating Endometriosis by Preoperative Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Patients with Adenomyosis

Objectives

Before endometriosis surgery, it is important to identify deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE) to assess the surgical difficulty. Preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to determine which findings are useful in predicting DIE.

Materials and Methods

Between 2008 and 2016, 54 patients with adenomyosis underwent total laparoscopic hysterectomy at our hospital. We retrospectively evaluated the intraoperative findings and magnetic resonance imaging (MR) images. The MR images were scored based on the presence of five findings: retroflexed uterus, elevated posterior vaginal fornix, intestinal tethering in the direction of the uterus, faint strands between the uterus and intestine, and fibrotic nodules covering the serosal surface of the uterus.

Results

Of the five findings, intestinal tethering and faint strands between the uterus and intestine showed a sensitivity of 73% and a specificity of 91%-100%, indicating the usefulness of these findings for detecting deep endometriosis lesions. However, finding a retroflexed uterus did not contribute to DIE lesion detection. The sensitivities of an elevated posterior fornix and fibrotic nodules covering the surface of the uterus were as low as 46%-59%, and their specificities were as high as 84%-91%.

Conclusion

Preoperative preparation is essential for patients with intestinal tethering or faint strands between the uterus and intestine on preoperative MRI after obtaining appropriate informed consent.

Soluble MICA in endometriosis pathophysiology: Impairs NK cell degranulation and effector functions

PROBLEM

Endometriosis exhibits several immune dysfunctions, including deficient natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity. MICA (MHC class I chain-related molecule A) is induced by biological stress and soluble MICA (sMICA) negatively modulates the expression of the activating receptor, NKG2D, reducing NK cells activities. We investigated the involvement of soluble MICA in NK cell-deficient activity in endometriosis.

METHODS OF STUDY

sMICA levels (serum and peritoneal fluid-PF) were evaluated by ELISA. Circulating NK cell subsets quantification and its NKG2D receptor expression, NK cell cytotoxicity and CD107a, IFN-γ and IL-10 expressions by NK cells stimulated with K562 cells were determined by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

We found higher sMICA levels (serum and PF) in endometriosis, especially in advanced and deep endometriosis. Endometriosis presented lower percentages of CD56dim CD16+ cytotoxic cells and impaired NK cell responses upon stimulation, resulting in lower CD107a and IFN-γ expressions, and deficient NK cell cytotoxicity. NK cell stimulation in the MICA-blocked condition (mimicking the effect of sMICA) showed decreased cytotoxicity in initial endometriosis stages and the emergence of a negative correlation between CD107a expression and sMICA levels.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest that soluble MICA is a potential player in endometriosis pathophysiology with involvement in disease progression and severity, contributing to NK cell impaired IFN-γ response and degranulation. NK cell compartment exhibits multiple perturbations, including quantitative deficiency and impaired cytotoxicity, contributing to inadequate elimination of ectopic endometrial tissue.

Prohibitin2/PHB2, Transcriptionally Regulated by GABPA, Inhibits Cell Growth via PRKN/Parkin-dependent Mitophagy in Endometriosis

Endometriosis (EMS) is a common benign gynecological disease affecting women of reproductive age. It is characterized by abnormal growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity, resulting in chronic pelvic pain and infertility. Endometrial physiological and pathological processes are intimately connected to autophagy. Mitophagy is an essential selective mode that protects cells from metabolic stress and hypoxia. Mitochondrial autophagy mediated by prohibitin 2 (PHB2) is dependent on the PRKN/Parkin pathway and is involved in numerous human diseases. Uncertainty remains as to whether mitophagy regulation by PHB2 contributes to the occurrence and progression of EMS. This study aims to investigate the mechanism underlying the role of PHB2 in EMS. This study detected the protein and mRNA expression of PHB2 in ectopic and normal endometrial tissues of ovarian EMS, in addition to ectopic endometrial cell line 12Z and endometrial stromal cell line KC02-44D for gene overexpression or knockdown. Cell function experiments and mitochondrial function experiments were conducted to investigate the role of PHB2 in the endometrium. Bioinformatic analysis and experiments were also used to investigate the upstream transcription factors that influence PHB2 expression. PHB2 was downregulated in ectopic endometrium, and PHB2 overexpression inhibited cell proliferation, migration, and invasion and promoted apoptosis. The upregulation of mitophagy markers, including Parkin and LC3II/I, and the downregulation of autophagy degradation markers P62 and TOMM20 in EMS suggest that PHB2 may contribute to cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and apoptosis via PRKN/Parkin-mediated mitophagy. Analysis and validation of bioinformatics data revealed that the transcription factor GABPA binds directly to the PHB2 promoter region and controls the transcriptional expression of PHB2. This study investigated the role of PHB2 in the onset of EMS. It inhibits EMS growth via PRKN/Parkin-mediated mitophagy, and GABPA controls the transcriptional disorder of PHB2. This study's findings suggest a novel method for investigating the clinical potential of PHB2 in EMS.

Correlation between Anatomopathological Aspects and Pelvic Pain in Women with Deep Infiltrating Endometriosis

OBJECTIVE

 To correlate the morphological aspects with pelvic pain in women with deep infiltrating endometriosis.

METHODS

 A retrospective study with 67 women with deep endometriosis who underwent surgical treatment in a tertiary hospital from 2007 to 2017. The following variables were considered: age, parity, body mass index, site of involvement, hormonal treatment before surgery, pelvic pain, and morphometric analysis. The histological slides of the surgical specimens were revised and, using the ImageJ software for morphometric study, the percentages of stromal/glandular tissues were calculated in the histological sections.

RESULTS

 The mean age of the women was 38.9 ± 6.5 years. The mean pain score was 8.8 ± 1.9 and the mean time of symptomatology was 4.7 ± 3.5 years, with 87% of the patients undergoing hormone treatment prior to surgery. The average expression of CD10, CK7, and S100 markers was 19.5 ± 11.8%, 9.4 ± 5.9%, and 7.9 ± 5.8% respectively. It was found that the greater the expression of CD10, the greater the level of pain (p = 0.02). No correlation was observed between the expression of CD10, CK7, and S100 markers and age and duration of symptoms.

CONCLUSION

 Women with deep infiltrating endometriosis have a positive association between the level of pain and the fibrosis component in the endometrial tissue's histological composition.

Digestive system deep infiltrating endometriosis: What do we know

Digestive system infiltrating endometriosis (DSIE) is an uncommon form of endometriosis in the digestive system. DSIE often occurs in the intestines (especially the sigmoid rectum), liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Clinically, DSIE presents with the same symptoms as endometriosis, including cyclic pain, bleeding and infertility, in addition to specific biliary/intestinal obstruction and gastrointestinal bleeding. Compared to general endometriosis, DSIE has unique biological behaviour and pathophysiological mechanisms. Most DSIEs are deep invasive endometrioses, characterized by metastasis to the lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels, angiogenesis, peripheral nerve recruitment, fibrosis and invasion of surrounding tissues. DSIE-related peripheral angiogenesis is divided into three patterns: angiogenesis, vasculogenesis and inosculation. These patterns are regulated by interactions between multiple hypoxia-hormone cytokines. The nerve growth factors regulate the extensive neurofibril recruitment in DSIE lesions, which accounts for severe symptoms of deep pain. They are also associated with fibrosis and the aggressiveness of DSIE. Cyclic changes in DSIE lesions, recurrent inflammation and oxidative stress promote repeated tissue injury and repair (ReTIAR) mechanisms in the lesions, accelerating fibril formation and cancer-related mutations. Similar to malignant tumours, DSIE can also exhibit aggressiveness derived from collective cell migration mediated by E-cadherin and N-cadherin. This often makes DSIE misdiagnosed as a malignant tumour of the digestive system in clinical practice. In addition to surgery, novel treatments are urgently required to effectively eradicate this lesion.

Outcomes of Urinary Tract Endometriosis-Laparoscopic Treatment: A 10-Year Retrospective Study

INTRODUCTION

Urinary tract endometriosis (UTE), a rare manifestation, encompasses bladder and ureteral involvement. Surgical intervention is commonly recommended for UTE, though the optimal surgical approach remains a subject of debate. This study aims to report our centre's experience with UTE.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 55 patients who underwent surgical treatment for UTE at a single tertiary centre over a 10-year period (2012-2022). Patient data, including demographics, symptoms, intraoperative findings, and complications, were collected from medical records. Data were statistically analysed, and correlations were explored.

RESULTS

The study population had a mean age of 37.11 years, with dysmenorrhea (89.1%) being the most common symptom. Bladder endometriosis was present in 27 cases, ureteral endometriosis in 25, and mixed-location in 3. Laparoscopy was the primary surgical approach, with multidisciplinary teams involving urologists. There were six patients with postoperative complications, and there were six (10.9%) recurrences of endometriosis. A positive correlation was found between age and recurrence, but no significant predictors of recurrence were identified in our analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Laparoscopic treatment of urinary endometriosis is safe and effective. Multidisciplinary collaboration plays a pivotal role in addressing this challenging condition.

MicroRNA-210-3p Regulates Endometriotic Lesion Development by Targeting IGFBP3 in Baboons and Women with Endometriosis

MicroRNAs (miRs) play an important role in the pathophysiology of endometriosis; however, the role of miR-210 in endometriosis remains unclear. This study explores the role of miR-210 and its targets, IGFBP3 and COL8A1, in ectopic lesion growth and development. Matched eutopic (EuE) and ectopic (EcE) endometrial samples were obtained for analysis from baboons and women with endometriosis. Immortalized human ectopic endometriotic epithelial cells (12Z cells) were utilized for functional assays. Endometriosis was experimentally induced in female baboons (n = 5). Human matched endometrial and endometriotic tissues were obtained from women (n = 9, 18-45 years old) with regular menstrual cycles. Quantitative reverse transcript polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis was performed for in vivo characterization of miR-210, IGFBP3, and COL8A1. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemical analysis were performed for cell-specific localization. Immortalized endometriotic epithelial cell lines (12Z) were utilized for in vitro functional assays. MiR-210 expression was decreased in EcE, while IGFBP3 and COL8A1 expression was increased in EcE. MiR-210 was expressed in the glandular epithelium of EuE but attenuated in those of EcE. IGFBP3 and COL8A1 were expressed in the glandular epithelium of EuE and were increased compared to EcE. MiR-210 overexpression in 12Z cells suppressed IGFBP3 expression and attenuated cell proliferation and migration. MiR-210 repression and subsequent unopposed IGFBP3 expression may contribute to endometriotic lesion development by increasing cell proliferation and migration.

Double-edged roles of ferroptosis in endometriosis and endometriosis-related infertility

Endometriosis is strongly associated with infertility. Several mechanisms have been reported in an attempt to elucidate the pathophysiological effects that lead to reduced fertility in women with endometriosis. However, the mechanisms by which endometriosis affects fertility have not been fully elucidated. Ferroptosis is a novel form of nonapoptotic cell death that is characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation membrane damage. In past reports, elevated iron levels in ectopic lesions, peritoneal fluid and follicular fluid have been reported in patients with endometriosis. The high-iron environment is closely associated with ferroptosis, which appears to exhibit a double-edged effect on endometriosis. Ferroptosis can cause damage to ovarian granulosa cells, oocytes, and embryos, leading to endometriosis-related infertility. This article summarizes the main pathways and regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis and explores the possible mechanisms of the formation of an iron-overloaded environment in endometriotic ectopic lesions, peritoneal fluid and follicular fluid. Finally, we reviewed recent studies on the main and potential mechanisms of ferroptosis in endometriosis and endometriosis-related infertility.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate elicits a ROS-mediated proinflammatory response in human endometrial stromal cells via ERK5 activation

Endometriosis is a chronic gynecological disease affecting ~10% women in the reproductive age characterized by the growth of endometrial glands and stroma outside the uterine cavity. The inflammatory process has a key role in the initiation and progression of the disorder. Currently, there are no available early diagnostic tests and therapy relies exclusively on symptomatic drugs, so that elucidation of the complex molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of endometriosis is an unmet need. The signaling of the bioactive sphingolipid sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is deeply dysregulated in endometriosis. S1P modulates a variety of fundamental cellular processes, including inflammation, neo-angiogenesis, and immune responses acting mainly as ligand of a family of G-protein-coupled receptors named S1P receptors (S1PR), S1P1-5 . Here, we demonstrated that the mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK5, that is expressed in endometriotic lesions as determined by quantitative PCR, is activated by S1P in human endometrial stromal cells. S1P-induced ERK5 activation was shown to be triggered by S1P1/3 receptors via a SFK/MEK5-dependent axis. S1P-induced ERK5 activation was, in turn, responsible for the increase of reactive oxygen species and proinflammatory cytokine expression in human endometrial stromal cells. The present findings indicate that the S1P signaling, via ERK5 activation, supports a proinflammatory response in the endometrium and establish the rationale for the exploitation of innovative therapeutic targets for endometriosis.

Comparison of the effectiveness of Dienogest with medroxyprogesterone acetate in the treatment of pelvic pain and recurrence of endometriosis after laparoscopic surgery

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of Dienogest and medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) on the recurrence of endometriosis lesions and clinical symptoms in women undergoing laparoscopic surgery.

METHODS

This single center clinical trial was conducted among 106 women with endometriosis undergoing laparoscopic surgery who candidate receiving post-surgery hormone therapy. Participants were allocated to two groups. The first group received Dienogest pills (2 mg) daily for the first three months and then cyclic for three months afterward. The second group received MPA pills twice daily (10 mg) for three months and then cyclic for the next three months. Six months after the intervention, the rate of endometriosis recurrence, the size of endometriosis lesions and pelvic pain were assess and compared between two groups.

RESULTS

Finally, data were evaluated based on 48 and 53 women in the Dienogest and MPA groups, respectively. After 6 months follow-up assessments the pelvic pain score was significantly lower in Dienogest group than MPA group (P < 0.001). There was not statistically difference between two groups in terms of recurrence rate of endometriosis (P = 0.4). Although the size of endometriosis cyst recurrence was smaller in Dienogest group compared to MPA group (P = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings showed that Dienogest treatment has better effect in reducing pelvic pain and the mean size of the recurrent endometriosis lesions after endometriosis laparoscopic surgery when compared to MPA treatment. Although the recurrent rate of endometriosis was similar between these treatments.

The role of endoplasmic reticulum stress in endometriosis

Endometriosis is a chronic gynecologic disorder characterized by abnormal growth of endometrium-like tissues in the ectopic regions of the pelvic peritoneum. The pathophysiology of endometriosis is not completely understood; however, excessive endometrial cell proliferation together with resistance to apoptosis facilitates the migration, implantation, and survival of endometrial cells in the distant sites. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response (also called unfolded protein response) is a cellular defense mechanism triggered by ER stress. When severe enough, the so-called response initiates cell suicide, i.e., apoptosis. Therefore, therapeutic induction of ER stress in endometriotic cells could promote apoptosis and contribute to the management of disease. In this review, we discuss the pathogenic role of ER stress in endometriosis and the most recent findings regarding the induction of ER stress in connection with endometriosis.

Diagnosis of pelvic endometriosis: a preliminary study on the added value of R2*MFGRE sequence in magnetic resonance imaging

BACKGROUND

Identifying and locating endometriotic lesions is crucial for preoperative planning, so new magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques are urgently needed to improve the diagnostic sensitivity for pelvic endometriosis.

PURPOSE

To evaluate the feasibility of R2* multiple fast gradient recalled echo (MFGRE) imaging in the diagnosis of pelvic endometriosis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 46 patients with suspected endometriosis underwent routine pelvic MRI and R2*MFGRE imaging. Clinical diagnosis was pathologically confirmed one month after MRI examination. Three radiologists who were blinded to the pathological results evaluated the number of ovarian endometriomas (OMAs) and deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE) lesions using routine MRI and its combination with R2*MFGRE. The diagnostic sensitivity for OMA or DIE using the two examination methods was determined. Two-correlation sample rank-sum tests were used to compare both methods. Additionally, for all lesions, the R2* values were measured and statistically analyzed.

RESULTS

Among 46 patients, 47 OMAs and 30 DIE lesions were found surgically and pathologically confirmed. The diagnostic sensitivity of the routine MRI was 87.2% for OMA and 46.7% for DIE. The diagnostic sensitivity of the routine imaging combined with R2*MFGRE was 100% for OMA and 90% for DIE. The two-correlation sample rank-sum test showed a significant difference between both methods (P<0.01, z = -4.26). The median R2* value was 25.20 (IQR=14) for the OMA group, and 45.21 (IQR=40) for the DIE group. The difference between both groups was statistically significant (P<0.01, z = -4.89).

CONCLUSION

R2*MFGRE imaging, as a supplement to the routine MRI, could improve the diagnostic sensitivity for pelvic endometriosis, especially for DIE.

Coexistence of Ovarian Endometrioma and Ovarian Pregnancy: A Case Report

Both ovarian pregnancy and endometrioma can rupture and cause life-threatening hemoperitoneum. However, little is known about their coexistence. We report the case of a 34-year-old Japanese woman with a life-threatening hemoperitoneum in the first trimester coexisting with ovarian endometrioma and ovarian pregnancy. The patient was hospitalized in our department for acute hypogastric pain and massive hemoperitoneum during pregnancy. She had a history of miscarriage at eight weeks of gestation one year prior. Her serum beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) level was >2,000 mIU/mL. Also, a transvaginal ultrasound showed an empty uterus, an intact right ovary, an inhomogeneous left ovary, and a massive hemoperitoneum. An exploratory laparoscopy revealed a rupture of the left ovarian endometrioma, a left corpus luteal cyst, and intraperitoneal bleeding of approximately 1,200 mL. However, no ectopic lesions were observed. Microscopic examination revealed an endometriotic cyst with decidual changes in the stroma, a corpus luteal cyst, and chorionic villi with hemorrhage. Serum beta-hCG levels became negative on the 27th postoperative day. The postoperative course was uneventful. This case shows that, in addition to the differential diagnosis of ovarian pregnancy from ovarian endometrioma, clinicians should consider the coexistence of both conditions.

Factors associated with deep infiltrating endometriosis, adenomyosis and ovarian endometrioma

Introduction: To compare epidemiological features and clinical presentations of deep infiltrating endometriosis with endometrioma and adenomyosis, as well as to identify risk factors for the respective histologically confirmed conditions. Method: Patients undergoing index surgery at the National University Hospital, Singapore for endometriosis or adenomyosis over a 7-year period—from 2015 to 2021—were identified from hospital databases using the Table of Surgical Procedures coding. Social and epidemiological features of cases with histologically confirmed diagnoses of endometrioma only, adenomyosis only, and deep infiltrating endometriosis were compared. Significant variables from univariate analysis were entered into 3 binary multivariate logistic regression models to obtain independent risk factors for: deep infiltrating endometriosis versus endometrioma only, deep infiltrating endometriosis versus adenomyosis only, and adenomyosis only versus endometrioma only. Results: A total of 258 patients were included with 59 ovarian endometrioma only, 47 adenomyosis only, and 152 deep infiltrating endometrioses. Compared to endometrioma only, deep infiltrating endometriosis was associated with higher rates of severe dysmenorrhoea (odds ratio [OR] 2.80, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.02–7.70) and out-of-pocket private surgical care (OR 4.72, 95% CI 1.85–12.04). Compared to adenomyosis only, deep infiltrating endometriosis was associated with a higher fertility desire (OR 13.47, 95% CI 1.01–180.59) and a lower body mass index (OR 0.89, 95% CI 0.79–0.99). In contrast, heavy menstrual bleeding was the hallmark of adenomyosis, being less common in patients with endometriosis. Conclusion: Deep infiltrating endometriosis is associated with severe dysmenorrhoea, pain related to urinary and gastrointestinal tracts, higher fertility desire and infertility rate. Patients with pain symptomatology and subfertility should be referred early to a tertiary centre with the capability to diagnose and manage deep infiltrating endometriosis. Keywords: Adenomyosis, deep infiltrating endometriosis, obstetrics and gynaecology, ovarian endometrioma, public health

Altered Differential Expression of Genes and microRNAs Related to Adhesion and Apoptosis Pathways in Patients with Different Phenotypes of Endometriosis

We aim to investigate the expression of genes (MAPK1 and CAPN2) and microRNAs (miR-30a-5p, miR-7-5p, miR-143-3p, and miR-93-5p) involved in adhesion and apoptosis pathways in superficial peritoneal endometriosis (SE), deep infiltrating endometriosis (DE), and ovarian endometrioma (OE), and to evaluate whether these lesions share the same pathophysiological mechanisms. We used samples of SE (n = 10), DE (n = 10), and OE (n = 10), and endometrial biopsies of these respective patients affected with endometriosis under treatment at a tertiary University Hospital. Endometrial biopsies collected in the tubal ligation procedure from women without endometriosis comprised the control group (n = 10). Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed. The expression of MAPK1 (p < 0.0001), miR-93-5p (p = 0.0168), and miR-7-5p (p = 0.0006) was significantly lower in the SE group than in the DE and OE groups. The expression of miR-30a (p = 0.0018) and miR-93 (p = 0.0052) was significantly upregulated in the eutopic endometrium of women with endometriosis compared to the controls. MiR-143 (p = 0.0225) expression also showed a statistical difference between the eutopic endometrium of women with endometriosis and the control group. In summary, SE showed lower pro-survival gene expression and miRNAs involved in this pathway, indicating that this phenotype has a different pathophysiological mechanism compared to DE and OE.

Three Types of Endometriosis: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Treatment. State of the Art

At present, there is no curative treatment for endometriosis. Medical management and surgical treatment do not provide long-term relief. A detailed understanding of its pathophysiology is mandatory in order to facilitate both the diagnosis and treatment. The delay that typically precedes proper diagnosis (6 to 7 years) is probably one of the most challenging aspects of endometriosis management. In 2012, the total cost per woman due to endometriosis was estimated to be 9579€ per year in a multicenter study across the USA and Europe. According to their physiopathology and their localization, ectopic endometrial lesions, consisting of endometrial glands and stroma, can be divided into three different types: superficial peritoneal endometriosis (SPE), ovarian endometrioma (OMA), and deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE). The following paper aims to review the available data in the literature on the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of different types of endometriosis.

UPLC-Q-TOF/MS Based Plasma Metabolomics for Identification of Paeonol's Metabolic Target in Endometriosis

Endometriosis is a common gynecological illness in women of reproductive age that significantly decreases life quality and fertility. Paeonol has been shown to play an important part in endometriosis treatments. Understanding the mechanism is critical for treating endometriosis. In this study, autologous transplantation combined with a 28 day ice water bath was used to create a rat model of endometriosis with cold clotting and blood stagnation. The levels of estradiol and progesterone in plasma were detected by ELISA, and the pathological changes of ectopic endometrial tissue were examined by H&E staining, which proved the efficacy of paeonol. For metabolomic analysis of plasma samples, UPLC-Q/TOF-MS was combined with multivariate statistical analysis to identify the influence of paeonol on small molecule metabolites relevant to endometriosis. Finally, the key targets were screened using a combination of network pharmacology and molecular docking approaches. The results showed that the pathological indexes of rats were improved and returned to normal levels after treatment with paeonol, which was the basis for confirming the efficacy of paeonol. Metabolomics results identified 13 potential biomarkers, and paeonol callbacks 7 of them, involving six metabolic pathways. Finally, four key genes were found for paeonol therapy of endometriosis, and the results of molecular docking revealed a significant interaction between paeonol and the four key genes. This study was successful in establishing a rat model of endometriosis with cold coagulation and blood stagnation. GCH1, RPL8, PKLR, and MAOA were the key targets of paeonol in the treatment of endometriosis. It is also demonstrated that metabolomic techniques give the potential and environment for comprehensively understanding drug onset processes.

Aberrant expression of histone deacetylase 8 in endometriosis and its potential as a therapeutic target

Purpose

To screen Zn2+-dependent histone deacetylase (HDAC) 1-11 in endometriotic cells and then evaluated the HDACs identified from the screening in ovarian endometrioma (OE) and deep endometriotic (DE) lesions, and to evaluate the therapeutic potential of HDAC8 inhibition in mice.

Methods

Quantification of gene and protein expression levels of HDAC1-11 in endometriotic cells stimulated by TGF-β1, and immunohistochemistry analysis of Class I HDACs and HDAC6 in OE/DE lesion samples. The therapeutic potential of HDAC8 inhibition was evaluated by a mouse model of deep endometriosis.

Results

The screening identified Class I HDACs and HDAC6 as targets of interest. Immunohistochemistry analysis found a significant elevation in HDAC8 immunostaining in both OE and DE lesions, which was corroborated by gene and protein expression quantification. For other Class I HDACs and HDAC6, their lesional expression was more subtle and nuanced. HDAC1 and HDAC6 staining was significantly elevated in DE lesions while HDAC2 and HDAC3 staining was reduced in DE lesions. Treatment of mice with induced deep endometriosis with an HDAC8 inhibitor resulted in significantly longer hotplate latency, a reduction of lesion weight by nearly two-thirds, and significantly reduced lesional fibrosis.

Conclusions

These findings highlight the progression-dependent nature of specific HDAC aberrations in endometriosis, and demonstrate, for the first titme, the therapeutic potential of suppressing HDAC8.

U0126 and BAY11-7082 Inhibit the Progression of Endometriosis in a Rat Model by Suppressing the MEK/ERK/NF-κB Pathway

Endometriosis is an aggressive disease. It is the main cause of chronic pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea, and infertility, affecting the well-being of women. This study aimed to explore the role of U0126 and BAY11-7082 in endometriosis (EMs) treatment in rats by targeting the MEK/ERK/NF-κB pathway. The EMs model was generated and the rats were divided into model, dimethyl sulfoxide, U0126, BAY11-708, and control groups (Sham operation group). After 4 weeks of treatment, the rats were sacrificed. Compared with model group, U0126 and BAY11-7082 treatment significantly inhibited ectopic lesion growth, glandular hyperplasia, and interstitial inflammation. Compared to control group, PCNA and MMP9 levels were significantly increased in the eutopic and ectopic endometrial tissues of model group; the levels of MEK/ERK/NF-κB pathway proteins also increased significantly. Compared with model group, MEK, ERK, and NF-κB levels decreased significantly after U0126 treatment and NF-κB protein expression decreased significantly after BAY11-7082 treatment, with no significant difference in MEK and ERK levels. The proliferation and invasion activities of eutopic and ectopic endometrial cells also significantly decreased after U0126 and BAY11-7082 treatment. In summary, our results showed that U0126 and BAY11-7082 inhibited ectopic lesion growth, glandular hyperplasia, and interstitial inflammatory response in EMs rats by inhibiting the MEK/ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Complex Interplay between Autophagy and Oxidative Stress in the Development of Endometriosis

Endometriosis (Endo) is a chronic gynecological disease. This paper aimed to evaluate the modulation of autophagy, oxidative stress and apoptosis with Açai Berries in a rat model of endometriosis. Endometriosis was induced with an intraperitoneal injection of minced uterus tissue from a donor rat into a recipient one. The abdominal high-frequency ultrasound (hfUS) analysis was performed at 7 and 14 days from the endometriosis induction to evaluate the growth of the lesion during the experiment. Seven days from the induction, once the lesions were implanted, an Açai Berry was administered daily by gavage for the next seven days. At the end of the experiment, the hfUS analysis showed a reduced lesion diameter in animals given the Açai Berry. A macroscopical and histological analysis confirmed this result. From the molecular point of view, Western blot analyses were conducted to evaluate the autophagy induction. Samples collected from the Endo group showed impaired autophagy, while the Açai Berry administration inhibited PI3K and AKT and ERK1/2 phosphorylation and promoted autophagy by inactivating mTOR. Additionally, Açai Berry administration dephosphorylated ATG1, promoting the activity of the ATG1/ULK1 complex that recruited Ambra1/Beclin1 and Atg9 to promote autophagosome nucleation and LC3II expression. Açai Berry administration also restored mitophagy, which increased Parkin cytosolic expression. The Açai Berry increased the expression of NRF2 in the nucleus and the expression of its downstream antioxidant proteins as NQO-1 and HO-1, thereby restoring the oxidative imbalance. It also restored the impaired apoptotic pathway by reducing BCL-2 and increasing BAX expression. This result was also confirmed by the TUNEL assay. Overall, our results displayed that Açai Berry administration was able to modulate autophagy, oxidative stress and apoptosis during endometriosis.

T-Cadherin, E-Cadherin, PR-A, and ER-α Levels in Deep Infiltrating Endometriosis

The goal of this study was to compare the T-cadherin, E-cadherin, progesterone receptor (PR), and estrogen receptor (ER) staining levels of deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE) tissue, ovarian endometriomas and normal endometrial tissues in the same individuals. The tissue sections of both DIE nodule(s) and endometrioma(s) of 15 cases were examined. As a control group, normal endometrial tissue sections of 23 cases were examined. T-cadherin, E-cadherin, ER-α, and PR-A staining levels of DIE, endometrioma tissues, and endometrial tissues were compared immunohistochemically. H -score was calculated to compare the expression of T-cadherin, E-cadherin, ER-α, and PR-A in immunohistochemical staining based on the percentage of cells stained at each intensity level. T-cadherin, E-cadherin, ER, and PR H -score were lowest in DIE tissue and highest in endometrial tissue ( P <0.0001, <0.0001, <0.0001, and <0.0001, respectively). In correlation analysis, a positive correlation was found between T-cadherin, E-cadherin, PR, and ER H -score ( P <0.0001 for each). T-cadherin, E-cadherin, ER, and PR H -score were lowest in DIE tissue and highest in endometrium tissue. We think that examination of DIE tissue and endometrioma tissue from the same individual excludes the possibility of an effect due to different genetic and environmental factors from different individuals. With the help of this exclusion we showed that DIE and endometrioma have different biological properties.

Endometriosis: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Leading to Fibrosis

Endometriosis is a chronic inflammatory condition affecting women of reproductive age. A relevant feature of endometriosis is the presence of fibrotic tissue inside and around the lesions, thus contributing to the classic endometriosis-related symptoms, pain, and infertility. The molecular mechanisms responsible for the development of fibrosis in endometriosis are not yet defined. The present review aimed to examine the biological mechanisms and signalling pathways involved in fibrogenesis of endometriotic lesions, highlighting the difference between deep infiltrating and ovarian endometriosis. The main cell types involved in the development of fibrosis are platelets, myofibroblasts, macrophages, and sensory nerve fibers. Members of the transforming growth factor (TGF) -β family, as well as the receptor Notch, or the bioactive sphingolipid sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), play a role in the development of tissue fibrosis, resulting in their metabolism and/or their signalling pathways altered in endometriotic lesions. It is relevant the knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that guide and support fibrosis in endometriosis, to identify new drug targets and provide new therapeutic approaches to patients.

A randomized trial assessing the efficacy of Silymarin on endometrioma-related manifestations

To study the effect of silymarin on the Interleukin-6 (IL-6) level, size of endometrioma lesion, pain, sexual function, and Quality of Life (QoL) in women diagnosed with endometriosis. This randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial was performed on 70 women with endometriosis which was divided into two groups of intervention and control. The intervention was 140 mg silymarin (or matching placebo) administered twice daily for 12 weeks. The volume of endometrioma lesions, the level of IL-6 concentration in serum, pain, sexual function, and QoL were analyzed before and after the intervention. The means of endometrioma volume (P = 0.04), IL-6 (P = 0.002), and pain (P < 0.001) were reduced significantly in the silymarin group after intervention. However, the QoL and female sexual function did not improve substantially in the two groups (P > 0.05). Silymarin significantly reduced interleukin-6 levels, sizes of endometrioma lesions, and pain-related symptoms. The trial has been registered in the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (IRCT20150905023897N5) on 4th February 2020 (04/02/2020) ( https://en.irct.ir/trial/42215 ) and the date of initial participant enrollment was 2nd March 2020 (02/03/2020).

Colocalization of senescent biomarkers in deep, superficial, and ovarian endometriotic lesions: a pilot study

Endometriosis is a prevalent gynecological condition with deleterious effects on women's quality of life in terms of physical, emotional, and social compromise. It is an inflammatory disease characterized by the presence of endometrial-like tissue outside the uterus, and its presentation varies from superficial peritoneal lesions to deep infiltrative endometriosis and ovarian endometrioma. In our previous study, endometriotic lesions were implicated in cellular senescence as their inflammatory pattern could potentially compromise surrounding tissue integrity, thereby inducing a senescent state in cells. P16^Ink4a and lamin b1 are biomarkers used to assess cellular senescence. Indirect immunofluorescence staining is a broad technique used to assess cellular structure and behavior driven by protein-protein interactions that provide valuable information about cell functioning. The etiopathogeny of endometriosis is not completely understood and diagnostic approaches still rely on invasive methods; therefore, it is important to use validated methods to increase our understanding of the disease and the development of novel diagnostic tools. However, indirect immunofluorescence protocols are often tissue specific and, if neglected, can lead to misinterpretation of results. Moreover, no valid endometriotic tissue-specific colocalization immunofluorescence protocols have been established. Thus, we have validated a well-funded and suitable protocol to allow precise evaluation of the three presentations of endometriosis lesions using indirect immunofluorescence aiming to support further investigations in endometriosis lesions.

Pregnancy following robot-assisted laparoscopic bilateral endometriotic cystectomy rare case report of endometriosis stage IV

Introduction and importance

Case presentation

Clinical discussion

Conclusion

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Successful pregnancy after laparoscopic endometriotic cystectomy

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Lady with infertility and chronic lower abdomen pain

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Multidisciplinary approach

Role of AMPK/mTOR, mitochondria, and ROS in the pathogenesis of endometriosis

Endometriosis is the presence of endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity usually in the ovaries, fallopian tube, and pelvic cavity. It's a chronic enigmatic gynecological condition associated with dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, pelvic pain, and infertility. Endometriosis lesions exist in a unique microenvironment characterized by increased concentrations of hormones, inflammation, and oxidative stress. This environment promotes cell survival through the binding of membrane receptors and subsequent cascading activation of intracellular kinases that stimulate a cellular response. In endometriosis, well-established signaling pathways, mTOR and AMPK, are altered via steroid hormones and other factors to promote cell growth, migration, and proliferation. This is accompanied by dysfunction in the mitochondria that increase energy production to sustain proliferation demands consequently leading to reactive oxygen species overproduction. This review aims to summarize the role of altered mTOR/AMPK signaling pathway, mitochondrial dysfunction, and reactive oxygen species overproduction along with providing therapeutic and diagnostic approaches. Highlighting these factors would provide a better understanding to reach a coherent theory for the pathogenesis of endometriosis.

Urinary Tract Endometriosis: How to Predict and Prevent Recurrence after Primary Surgical Excision

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To investigate the clinical and surgical predictors of urinary tract endometriosis (UTE) relapse.

DESIGN

Retrospective single institutional study.

SETTING

Italian multidisciplinary referral center for endometriosis.

PATIENTS

Consecutive patients affected by UTE and surgically treated between January 2016 and March 2020.

INTERVENTION

Surgical excision for UTE. Uni- and multivariate logistic regression analyses were fitted to evaluate clinical and surgical predictors of recurrence.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

A total of 105 female age-reproductive patients were enrolled. Median age was 32 years (interquartile range, 24-37). Ureteral involvement was recorded in 53 patients (50.5%), being unilateral and bilateral in 46 patients (43.8%) and 7 patients (6.7%), respectively. Bladder involvement occurred in 52 patients (49.5%). Open surgical approach was performed in 24 cases (22.9%), whereas 30 patients (28.5%) and 51 patients (48.6%) were treated with laparoscopic and robot-assisted approach, respectively. Overall, 53 patients (50.5%) received adjuvant hormonal therapy. At a median follow-up of 39 months (interquartile range, 22-51), 30 patients (28.6%) experienced disease relapse, with 14 recurrences (13.3%) recorded at the level of the urinary tract. At multivariable analysis, age at first surgery <25 years (odds ratio [OR], 1.23; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.10-1.84; p = .02) and the presence of a concomitant autoimmune disease (OR, 1.45; 95% CI, 1.24-2.17; p = .02) were found as predictors of deep infiltrating endometriosis recurrence, whereas adjuvant postsurgical therapy showed a protective role (OR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.53-0.98; p = .01).

CONCLUSIONS

Young age (<25 years) and the presence of autoimmune diseases were significant predictors for the development of disease recurrence, whereas adjuvant hormonal therapy showed a protective role.

The Promises of Natural Killer Cell Therapy in Endometriosis

Endometriosis is a gynaecological disease defined by the growth of endometrium-like tissue outside the uterus. The disease is present in approximately 5–10% of women of reproductive age and causes pelvic pain and infertility. The pathophysiology is not completely understood, but retrograde menstruation and deficiency in natural killer (NK) cells that clear endometriotic cells in the peritoneal cavity play an important role. Nowadays, hormonal therapy and surgery to remove endometriosis lesions are used as treatment. However, these therapies do not work for all patients, and hormonal therapy prevents patients from getting pregnant. Therefore, new treatment strategies should be developed. Since the cytotoxicity of NK cells is decreased in endometriosis, we performed a literature search into the possibility of NK cell therapy. Available treatment options include the inhibition of receptor–ligand interaction for KIR2DL1, NKG2A, LILRB1/2, and PD-1/PD-L1; inhibition of TGF-β; stimulation of NK cells with IL-2; and mycobacterial treatment with BCG. In preclinical work, these therapies show promising results but unfortunately have side effects, which have not specifically been studied in endometriosis patients. Before NK cell treatment can be used in the clinic, more research is needed.

CPEB3, an RNA-Binding Protein, Modulates the Behavior of Endometriosis-Derived Stromal Cells via Regulating CXCL12

Endometriosis is a benign gynecological disease sharing several features with malignant tumor. Cytoplasmic polyadenylation element-binding protein 3 (CPEB3), a potential target of miR-21-5p, is downregulated in endometriotic specimens. However, the function of CPEB3 in endometriosis is elusive. In this study, in cultured primary human endometrial stromal cells (ESCs), the overexpression and inhibition of CPEB3 were achieved by transduction of adenovirus-mediated CPEB3 overexpressed plasmid and shRNA, respectively. Functional analysis uncovered that upregulated CPEB3 reduced cell viability and arrested cell cycle entry. The expression of cyclin D1 and c-Myc was decreased after CPEB3 overexpression. Overexpression of CPEB3 facilitated ESC apoptotic potential, accompanied by increased Bax, cleaved-caspase 3 and cleaved-caspase 9, and reduced Bcl2. Moreover, elevated CPEB3 weakened migration and invasion abilities of ESCs. CPEB3 overexpression also reduced the expression of fibronectin and vimentin and the activities of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and MMP-2. Interestingly, these effects were counteracted by CPEB3 inhibition. Furthermore, CPEB3 controlled the protein level of CXCL12, a homeostatic chemokine. CXCL12 elevation partially reversed the effects of CPEB3 on inhibiting ESC proliferation, migration and invasion, and promoting apoptosis. Based on these findings, it seems possible that CPEB3, as a critical player, attenuated the progression of endometriosis through repressing CXCL12 expression.

Macrophage Associated Immune Checkpoint CD47 Blocking Ameliorates Endometriosis

Peritoneal macrophages play a significant role in the progression of endometriosis (EM), but their functional differentiation is still unclear, and their phagocytic ability is weak. CD47-SIRPα and PD-L1-PD-1 are considered immune checkpoints associated with macrophage phagocytosis. A specific blockade of these two pathways had been shown to increase the phagocytic clearance of cancer cells by macrophages in most cancers. We hypothesized that targeting CD47/PD-L1 in EM could improve the phagocytosis of macrophages, thereby delaying the progression of EM. From localization to quantification, from mRNA to protein, we comprehensively evaluated the expression of CD47 and PD-L1 in EM. We demonstrated that the CD47 expression in ectopic endometrium from patients with EM was significantly increased, but PD-L1was not. We performed direct co-culture experiments of endometrial stromal cells with macrophages in vitro and in vivo to assess whether ectopic endometrial stromal cells escape macrophage phagocytosis through the CD47-SIRPα signaling pathway. The results showed that targeting CD47 increased the phagocytic capacity of macrophages. Interestingly, we also found that the reduction of CD47 expression promoted apoptosis of ESCs. In conclusion, these data suggested that targeting CD47 can effectively target ectopic endometrial stromal cells through a dual mechanism of increased phagocytosis of macrophages and induced apoptosis of ectopic endometrial stromal cells. Thus, immunotherapy based on the CD47-SIRPa signaling pathway has some potential in treating EM, but further mechanistic studies are needed to explore more effective and specific antibodies.

Treating Deep Endometriosis in Infertile Patients before Assisted Reproductive Technology

Deep endometriosis (DE) causes infertility and pelvic pain. Surgical management of DE has become a topic of increasing interest in gynecological surgery. In women desirous of pregnancy, optimal management such as surgery versus first-line assisted reproductive technology (ART) for patients with severe endometriosis is strongly debated. Current guidelines and literature including retrospective and prospective studies in English available on DE surgery, infertility, and pregnancy outcomes following surgery were searched in Cochrane Library with DE, DIE, Infertility, "DE surgery and pregnancy outcomes," and "Deep infiltrating endometriosis and assisted reproduction" as keywords. The purpose was to find evidence to answer the following clinical questions: How does DE affect fertility and pregnancy? What are the possible benefits of primary surgery for DIE before in vitro fertilization (IVF)? Several studies have recently concluded that surgical removal of DE nodules might actually have a favorable impact on IVF outcomes. This is in contradiction to European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology statement which stated that there was no evidence supporting surgical management of DE prior to ART to improve pregnancy rate; several studies have suggested that the surgical removal of DE nodules might actually have a favorable impact on IVF outcomes. Treatment of DE affecting the rectovaginal septum or bowel requires complex surgery with considerable risk of complications. This review article tries to analyze the rationale of surgical treatment of DE before ART. A balance must be struck between exposing the patient to surgical risk and improvement in pain and fertility potential. Decisions should be tailored according to the individual needs of each woman and most importantly on the ability of the surgeons.

Novel microarchitecture of human endometrial glands: implications in endometrial regeneration and pathologies

BACKGROUND

Human endometrium remains a poorly understood tissue of the female reproductive tract. The superficial endometrial functionalis, the site of embryo implantation, is repeatedly shed with menstruation, and the stem cell-rich deeper basalis is postulated to be responsible for the regeneration of the functionalis. Two recent manuscripts have demonstrated the 3D architecture of endometrial glands. These manuscripts have challenged and replaced the prevailing concept that these glands end in blind pouches in the basalis layer that contain stem cells in crypts, as in the intestinal mucosa, providing a new paradigm for endometrial glandular anatomy. This necessitates re-evaluation of the available evidence on human endometrial regeneration in both health and disease in the context of this previously unknown endometrial glandular arrangement.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

The aim of this review is to determine if the recently discovered glandular arrangement provides plausible explanations for previously unanswered questions related to human endometrial biology. Specifically, it will focus on re-appraising the theories related to endometrial regeneration, location of stem/progenitor cells and endometrial pathologies in the context of this recently unravelled endometrial glandular organization.

SEARCH METHODS

An extensive literature search was conducted from inception to April 2021 using multiple databases, including PubMed/Web of Science/EMBASE/Scopus, to select studies using keywords applied to endometrial glandular anatomy and regeneration, and the references included in selected publications were also screened. All relevant publications were included.

OUTCOMES

The human endometrial glands have a unique and complex architecture; branched basalis glands proceed in a horizontal course adjacent to the myometrium, as opposed to the non-branching, vertically coiled functionalis glands, which run parallel to each other as is observed in intestinal crypts. This complex network of mycelium-like, interconnected basalis glands is demonstrated to contain endometrial epithelial stem cells giving rise to single, non-branching functionalis glands. Several previous studies that have tried to confirm the existence of epithelial stem cells have used methodologies that prevent sampling of the stem cell-rich basalis. More recent findings have provided insight into the efficient regeneration of the human endometrium, which is preferentially evolved in humans and menstruating upper-order primates.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

The unique physiological organization of the human endometrial glandular element, its relevance to stem cell activity and scarless endometrial regeneration will inform reproductive biologists and clinicians to direct their future research to determine disease-specific alterations in glandular anatomy in a variety of endometrial pathological conditions.

Bowel resection performed by gynecologists - Outcomes and learning curves. Activity profile in a Gynecology Department: 7-year observational cohort

OBJECTIVE

Bowel resection is frequently used when performing oncological surgery to obtain complete cytoreduction or to remove endometriosis in case of intestinal invasion. Acquiring the surgical skills to perform this kind of procedure is crucial to offer to our patients an optimal management. The aim of this study is to describe a 7-years surgical experience in bowel resections of a gynecologic surgeon and to determine his learning curves.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a monocentric retrospective cohort study reporting digestive resection performed between January 2013 and April 2020 in the Gynecology Department of Strasbourg University Hospital. Ninety-one consecutive patients were assigned in two groups: gynecological cancer (n = 44) and deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE) (n = 47). The main outcome measure was the postoperative complications rate at 30 days, based on the modified Clavien-Dindo severity system. Learning curves were evaluated using cumulative sum (CUSUM) analysis of operative time and risk-adjusted cumulative sum (RA-CUSUM) analysis of severe perioperative complications. Identification of predictive factors for operation duration and severe perioperative complication occurrence was conducted using multivariate analysis.

RESULTS

Minor complications were found in 25% of cases. Major complication rate (Clavien-Dindo ≥ IIIa) was 14% in total and only involved patients operated for cancer. The CUSUM curve for operative time peaked at the 35th case and showed a downward slope after the 45th case. Significant predictive factors of operating time were cytoreductive tumoral surgery, size of the bowel resection and laparoscopic surgery, while learning phase 3 significantly decreased it. The RA-CUSUM curve for severe perioperative complications (Clavien-Dindo ≥ IIIa) showed a progressive decrease in the complication rate as the number of interventions increases without showing clear inflection points. Only cardiopulmonary pathologies were found as significant predictive factor of severe complications.

CONCLUSION

Proficiency in performing highly complex surgery was achieved after approximately 45 cases, cancer and DIE all together. Acceptable rates of severe perioperative complications were observed even during the initial learning period and are comparable with those found in the literature concerning bowel resection performed by gynecologic oncologists but also by general and digestive surgeons.

New Therapeutics in Endometriosis: A Review of Hormonal, Non-Hormonal, and Non-Coding RNA Treatments

Endometriosis is defined as endometrial-like tissue outside the uterine cavity. It is a chronic inflammatory estrogen-dependent disease causing pain and infertility in about 10% of women of reproductive age. Treatment nowadays consists of medical and surgical therapies. Medical treatments are based on painkillers and hormonal treatments. To date, none of the medical treatments have been able to cure the disease and symptoms recur as soon as the medication is stopped. The development of new biomedical targets, aiming at the cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for endometriosis, is needed. This article summarizes the most recent medications under investigation in endometriosis treatment with an emphasis on non-coding RNAs that are emerging as key players in several human diseases, including cancer and endometriosis.

Acute haemoperitoneum caused by endometriosis infiltrating the uterine artery - Two case reports and a literature review

We report 2 cases of haemoperitoneum due to a bleeding of the uterine artery caused by infiltrating endometriosis. We have also conducted a literature review on endometriosis-related intra-abdominal haemorrhage and wrote a practical guideline on how this entity can be recognized and handled.

Case 1: A 49-year-old multiparous woman presented with intense stabbing pain in the lower abdomen during her menstruation. CT angiography showed a bleeding from a side branch of the internal iliac artery. Laparoscopy was performed and an active bleeding from the right uterine artery was confirmed, clearly caused by infiltrating endometriosis lesions. Haemostasis was achieved by bipolar coagulation. Case 2: A 29-year-old nulliparous woman was admitted for observation because of heavy stabbing pain in the right lower quadrant and presence of free fluid on CT abdomen. The day after the admission, laparoscopy was performed because of a decreasing haemoglobin level. An arterial bleeding from the right parametrium was observed, probably originating from the right uterine artery. Histopathological examination of a biopsy of the right parametrium proved the presence of endometriosis. Haemostasis was achieved by bipolar coagulation.

Although endometriosis-related haemoperitoneum is a rare entity, this diagnosis should be considered when a patient presents with an intra-abdominal haemorrhage during menstruation or withdrawal bleeding - especially in case of a history or suspicion of endometriosis. Laparoscopy is the cornerstone of the treatment.

A Case of Elastography-Assisted Laparoscopic Fertility Preservation for Severe Deep Endometriosis Causing Ureteral Stenosis and Subtype II Adenomyosis

Adenomyosis is commonly treated by total hysterectomy. Adenomyomectomy is considered for women of reproductive age who wish to preserve their fertility. However, a high recurrence rate following adenomyomectomy has been reported because complete removal of the lesion is difficult, and uterine rupture during pregnancy remains a complication. We previously reported that laparoscopic adenomyomectomy using a cold knife prevented thermal damage to the myometrium and elastography to avoid residual lesions. Here, we report the case of a patient who underwent complete resection of a subtype II adenomyosis and resection of deep endometriosis (DE) with the closure of the pouch of Douglas. The patient was 31 years old, had severe dysmenorrhea, and had left ureteral stenosis and subtype II adenomyosis associated with the closure of the pouch of Douglas by the DE. After resection of the DE posterior wall adenomyosis, residual lesions were confirmed by laparoscopic real-time elastography. Eight weeks after surgery, postoperative transvaginal ultrasound showed that the myometrium had shrunk from 28 to 22.7 mm, and the hydronephrosis had disappeared, although a stent remained necessary. In this study, we report the complete resection of subtype II adenomyosis and DE, combined with elastography to visualize the lesions during resection.

Molecular Basis of Endometriosis and Endometrial Cancer: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives

The human endometrium is a unique tissue undergoing important changes through the menstrual cycle. Under the exposure of different risk factors in a woman's lifetime, normal endometrial tissue can give rise to multiple pathologic conditions, including endometriosis and endometrial cancer. Etiology and pathophysiologic changes behind such conditions remain largely unclear. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the pathophysiology of endometriosis and its potential role in the development of endometrial cancer from a molecular perspective. A better understanding of the molecular basis of endometriosis and its role in the development of endometrial pathology will improve the approach to clinical management.

Role of inflammation in benign gynecologic disorders: from pathogenesis to novel therapies†

Emerging evidence supports the notion that inflammation fosters the development of common benign gynecologic disorders, including uterine leiomyoma, endometriosis, and adenomyosis. Numerous cytokines, chemokines, and growth and transcription factors have indisputable roles in the establishment and maintenance of benign gynecologic disorders by initiating complex cascades that promote proliferation, angiogenesis, and lesion progression. The interaction between inflammation and benign gynecologic disorders is orchestrated by a plethora of factors, including sex steroids, genetics, epigenetics, extracellular matrix, stem cells, cardiometabolic risk factors, diet, vitamin D, and the immune system. The role of inflammation in these disorders is not limited to local pathobiology but also extends to involve clinical sequelae that range from those confined to the reproductive tract, such as infertility and gynecologic malignancies, to systemic complications such as cardiovascular disease. Enhanced understanding of the intricate mechanisms of this association will introduce us to unvisited pathophysiological perspectives and guide future diagnostic and therapeutic implications aimed at reducing the burden of these disorders. Utilization of inflammatory markers, microRNA, and molecular imaging as diagnostic adjuncts may be valuable, noninvasive techniques for prompt detection of benign gynecologic disorders. Further, use of novel as well as previously established therapeutics, such as immunomodulators, hormonal treatments, cardiometabolic medications, and cyclooxygenase-2 and NF-κB inhibitors, can target inflammatory pathways involved in their pathogenesis. In this comprehensive review, we aim to dissect the existing literature on the role of inflammation in benign gynecologic disorders, including the proposed underlying mechanisms and complex interactions, its contribution to clinical sequelae, and the clinical implications this role entails.

Assessment of quality of sexual life in women with adenomyosis

This study aimed to assess the impact of adenomyosis (AD) on different domains of sexual life. The study population included three groups: one composed of 68 women diagnosed with AD by transvaginal ultrasound, a second group comprised by 65 women diagnosed with isolated deep infiltrating endometriosis by transvaginal ultrasound and a third group including 70 women without AD or/and endometriosis. All participants completed the Brief Profile of Female Sexual Function (B-PFSF), the Female Sexual Distress Scale (FSDS), and the Sexual Quality of Life-Female (SQOL-F) questionnaire. Compared with non-AD/DIE controls, women with AD present significantly lower scores of the B-PFSF and the SQOL-F questionnaires and higher FSDS questionnaire scores (p < .0001). There were no differences between the groups of AD and deep infiltrating endometriosis. Clinicians should be aware that the quality of sexual life may be affected in patients with AD. Early diagnosis and multidisciplinary management would contribute to preventing impairment of sexual quality of life in these patients.

Hidrox® and Endometriosis: Biochemical Evaluation of Oxidative Stress and Pain

Endometriosis is a gynecological and painful condition affecting women of reproductive age. It is characterized by dysfunctional endometrium-like implants outside of the uterine cavity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of Hidrox®, an aqueous extract of olive pulp containing hydroxytyrosol, on endometriotic lesions associated with pro-oxidative alterations and pain-like behaviors. Endometriosis was induced by intraperitoneal injection of uterine fragments, and Hidrox® was administered daily. At the end of the 14-day treatment, behavioral alterations were assessed and hippocampal tissues were collected. Laparotomy was performed, and the endometrial implants were harvested for histological and biochemical analysis. Hidrox® treatment reduced endometriotic implant area, diameter and volumes. Vehicle-treated rats showed lesional fibrosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and fibroblast-myofibroblast transdifferentiation, angiogenesis and pro-oxidative alterations in the peritoneal cavity. Hidrox® treatment reduced the aniline blue-stained area, α-smooth muscle actin (α-sma) and CD34 positive expressions. Moreover, it reduced mast cell recruitment into the lesions, myeloperoxidase activity and lipid peroxidation and increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and glutathione levels in the endometrial explants. In the peritoneal fluid, Hidrox® treatment reduced interleukin (IL)-1β, IL2, IL6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and vascular endothelial grow factor (VEGF) levels increased by the disease. Hidrox® administration also reduced peripheral and visceral sensibility as shown by the behavioral tests (open field test, hot plate test, elevated plus maze test and acetic-acid-induced abdominal contractions). Animals treated with Hidrox® also showed reduced blood-brain barrier permeability and mast cell infiltration in the hippocampus, as well as astrocyte and microglia activation and brain oxidative status restoring brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein expression and increasing Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nfr2) nuclear translocation. In conclusion, Hidrox® displayed potential ameliorative effects on endometriotic implants and related pain-induced behaviors due to its potent antioxidative properties.

Endometriosis, infertility and MicroRNA's: A review

The review aims to explore circulating small non- coding regulatory Ribonucleic Acids (miRNA) as biomarkers of endometriosis; a reproductive age group disorder. miRNA are linked with genetic, epigenetic and angiogenic factors, hormones, cytokines, chemokines, oxidative stress (OS) markers, mediators of inflammation, hypoxia, angiogenesis and altered immune system contributing to the pathogenesis of endometriosis. Hormonal imbalance occurs by decreased levels of miRNAs -23a and miRNAs -23b and increase in miRNAs -:135a, 135b, 29c and 194-3p. Angiogenesis by vascular endothelial growth factor is attributed to increased miRNAs -126, miRNAs -210, miRNAs -21, miRNAs -199a-5p and miRNAs 20A. OS upregulates miRNAs -302a by increased levels of Tumor Necrosis factor (TNF)-α, TNF- β and Interleukin -1β. Upregulation of miRNAs -199a and miRNAs -16 promotes inflammation and cell proliferation in the endometriotic lesions. The gold standard to diagnose endometriosis is laparoscopy, yet miRNA can be validated as diagnostic tool for detection, progression and prevention of endometriosis in large, independent cohorts of women, with and without endometriosis.

A deep insight into pelvic pain and endometriosis: a review of the literature from pathophysiology to clinical expressions

Endometriosis is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects approximately 10% of women of reproductive age. Its clinical manifestations are highly heterogeneous, but pelvic pain is the most frequent, causing functional disability. Cyclic or acyclic chronic pelvic pain (CPP), dysmenorrhea and dyspareunia are frequent symptoms which often compromise all aspects of the women's quality of life (QoL). The pathophysiology of endometriosis-related pain is extremely complex and not always clear. The aim of this literature review is to focus on recent updates on the clinical presentation, the pathophysiology and the most important mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of pelvic pain in endometriosis. A literature search in the Cochrane library, PubMed, Scopus and web of Science databases has been performed, identifying articles from January 1995 to November 2020. Several processes seem to be involved in the pathogenesis of pain, but many aspects are still unclear. Scientific evidence has shown that a correlation between pain severity and stage of endometriosis rarely occurs, whereas there is a significant correlation between pain and the presence of deep endometriosis. Onset and intensity of pain may be due to a complex process involving central sensitization and peripheral activation of nociceptive pathways as well as dysfunction of the immune system and of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. A deeper understanding of these different pathogenetic mechanisms may improve future treatments in women with painful endometriosis.

The Methyl Ester of 2-Cyano-3,12-Dioxooleana-1,9-Dien-28-Oic Acid Reduces Endometrial Lesions Development by Modulating the NFkB and Nrf2 Pathways

Endometriosis is a common gynecological disease. Here, we aimed to investigate the anti-fibrotic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative role of the methyl ester of 2-cyano-3,12-dioxooleana-1,9-dien-28-oic acid (CDDO-Me) on endometriosis. An endometriosis rat model was constructed by intraperitoneally injecting recipient rats with an equivalent of tissue from the uterus of a donor animal. Endometriosis was allowed to develop for seven days. CDDO-Me was administered on the 7th day and for the next 7 days. On day 14, rats were sacrificed, and peritoneal fluid and endometriotic implants were collected. CDDO-Me displayed antioxidant activity by activating the Nfr2 pathway and the expression of antioxidant mediators such as NQO-1 and HO-1. Moreover, it reduced lipid peroxidation and increased glutathione (GSH) levels and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. CDDO-Me also showed anti-inflammatory activity by decreasing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in peritoneal fluids and NFkB activation. It, in turn, reduced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in the endometriotic loci and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels in the peritoneal fluids, leading to increased apoptosis and reduced angiogenesis. The reduced oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory microenvironment decreased implants diameter, area, and volume. In particular, CDDO-Me administration reduced the histopathological signs of endometriosis and inflammatory cells recruitment into the lesions, as shown by toluidine blue staining and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. CDDO-Me strongly suppressed α-SMA and fibronectin expression and collagen deposition, reducing endometriosis-associated fibrosis. In conclusion, CDDO-Me treatment resulted in a coordinated and effective suppression of endometriosis by modulating the Nrf2 and NFkB pathways.

Is primary dysmenorrhea a precursor of future endometriosis development?

Primary dysmenorrhea (PD) is the most common gynecologic disorder during adolescence and it is characterized by crampy lower abdominal pain that occurs during menstruation. Secondary dysmenorrhea, in contrast, has the same clinical features but occurs in women with a disease that could account for their symptoms (endometriosis, adenomyosis, uterine fibroids, pelvic inflammatory disease). Endometriosis is the most common cause of secondary dysmenorrhea and it should be considered in patients with persistent and clinically significant dysmenorrhea despite treatment. It is often diagnosed after a long delay, increasing the likelihood of pain chronicity and fertility problems at a later age. Women who suffer from dysmenorrhea in adolescence have higher risk of endometriosis in future. The open question is if endometriosis was already present at the onset of dysmenorrhea but undiagnosed or if PD favors subsequent development of endometriosis-associated pain. Since PD is associated with higher risk for developing chronic pain state and shares some of the same pain pathways of endometriosis (prostaglandins overproduction, inflammation, peripheral sensitization, central sensitization and abnormal stress responses), a correlation between PD and endometriosis is suggested. To know whether it is a risk factor for the development of endometriosis-associated pain may provide an opportunity for early intervention and prevention. The present review aims to investigate the clinical and pathogenetic features of PD and endometriosis in order to identify a possible association between the two conditions.

Relationship between Cyst Fluid Concentrations of Iron and Severity of Dysmenorrhea in Patients with Ovarian Endometrioma

OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN

Endometriosis-related pain can be caused by anatomical distortions as well as environmental factors such as inflammation and oxidative stress. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the severity of dysmenorrhea in patients with ovarian endometrioma (OMA) and cyst fluid (CF) concentrations of irons, including total iron, heme iron, and free iron.

METHOD

Eighty-three patients who were histologically diagnosed with OMA were enrolled in the Department of Gynecology, Nara Medical University Hospital, between 2013 and 2019. The patients were divided into 4 groups according to the severity of dysmenorrhea: no pain, mild, moderate, and severe. Iron concentration was measured by the inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry method.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences among the 4 groups in variables such as age at diagnosis, preoperative CA125, preoperative CA19-9, cyst size, and tumor laterality (unilateral or bilateral). There was a positive correlation between the severity of dysmenorrhea and total iron (p < 0.001) and heme iron (p = 0.016) concentrations. Multiple regression analyses revealed that the CF concentration of total iron (hazard ratio 18.75, 95% confidence interval: 2.26-155.35, p = 0.007) was a significant independent variable associated with the severity of dysmenorrhea. A receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that a total iron exceeding 290.8 mg/L was associated with severe dysmenorrhea with a sensitivity of 90.9% and a specificity of 65.7%.

LIMITATIONS

This study excluded patients with adenomyosis, superficial endometriosis, or deep endometriosis, resulting in a smaller number of cases. Iron levels could not be compared to the endometriosis stage using the r-ASRM score.

CONCLUSIONS

There is no clear evidence that iron predicts the severity of endometriosis-related pain. However, iron may be closely associated with dysmenorrhea.