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Farag MR, Zheng C, Gharib HSA, EL-Hady E, Mahdy EAA, Abo-Elmaaty AMA, Abou-Zeid SM, Alagawany M, Di Cerbo A, Azzam MM, Al-Abdullatif AA, Hassan MA. Physiological and Neurobehavioral Disturbances Induced by Al 2O 3 Nanoparticle Intoxication in Nile Tilapia Fish: Benefits of Dietary Chamomile Essential Oil. AQUACULTURE NUTRITION 2023; 2023:6700708. [PMID: 37303607 PMCID: PMC10257550 DOI: 10.1155/2023/6700708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Despite the usage of nanoparticles (NPs) is rapidly increasing, several experts have noted the risk of their release into ecosystems and their potential negative impacts on biological systems. However, the available studies on the neurobehavioral impacts of aluminum oxide nanoparticles (Al2O3NPs) on aquatic organisms are little. Hence, this study targeted to ascertain the harmful effects of Al2O3NPs on behavioral characteristics and genotoxic and oxidative damages in Nile tilapia fish. In addition, the beneficial role of chamomile essential oil (CEO) supplementation in reducing these effects was also investigated. In the current study, fish were distributed into 4 equal groups (n = 60 fish per group). The control group was fed a plain diet only, the CEO group received a basic diet complemented with CEO at a level of 2 mg/kg diet, the ALNP group received a basic diet and was exposed to an approximate concentration of 1/10th LC50 of ALNPs nearly 5.08 mg/L, and the combination group (ALNPs/CEO group) received a basal diet coadministered with ALNPs and CEO at the aforementioned percentages. The findings revealed that O. niloticus exhibit neurobehavioral changes along with changes in the level of GABA, monoamines in the brain tissue, and serum amino acid neurotransmitters, besides a reduction of AChE and Na+/K+-ATPase activities. In addition to brain tissue oxidative damage with upregulation of proinflammatory and stress genes, such as HSP70 and caspase-3, supplementation of CEO significantly reduced the negative impacts of ALNPs. These results showed that CEO has neuroprotective, antioxidant, genoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic properties in fish that have been exposed to ALNPs. Therefore, we advise its usage as a valuable addition to fish diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayada R. Farag
- Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Department, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Chuntian Zheng
- Institute of Animal Science, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science (South China) of Ministry of Agriculture, State Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Breeding, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Breeding and Nutrition, 510640 Guangzhou, China
| | - Heba S. A. Gharib
- Behaviour and Management of Animal, Poultry and Aquatics Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, 44511, Egypt
| | - Enas EL-Hady
- Anatomy and Embryology Department Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Eman A. A. Mahdy
- Anatomy and Embryology Department Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Azza M. A. Abo-Elmaaty
- Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Shimaa M. Abou-Zeid
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City, Sadat City 6012201, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud Alagawany
- Poultry Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Alessandro Di Cerbo
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Matelica, Italy
| | - Mahmoud M. Azzam
- Department of Animal Production College of Food & Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulaziz A. Al-Abdullatif
- Department of Animal Production College of Food & Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mona A. Hassan
- Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Department, Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
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Biltekin S, Karadağ AE, Demirci F, Demirci B. In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory and Anticancer Evaluation of Mentha spicata L. and Matricaria chamomilla L. Essential Oils. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:17143-17150. [PMID: 37214687 PMCID: PMC10193545 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c01501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Spearmint, Mentha spicata L., and the German chamomile, Matricaria chamomilla L., preparations are used against inflammatory conditions traditionally and in modern medicinal applications. This present study aimed to evaluate pharma-grade essential oils for their in vitro anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects using COX-1, COX-2, and 5-LOX enzyme assays, as well as their apoptosis potential through the caspase pathway. In addition, the (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) (MTT) assay was applied to evaluate the in vitro cytotoxic effects using HEK293/A549, MCF7, and PC3 cell lines. Major components of M. spicata essential oil were confirmed both by gas chromatography (GC)-flame ionization detector (FID) and GC/mass spectrometry (MS) as 72.8% carvone, 12.6% limonene, 2.2% 1,8-cineole, 1.3% myrcene, and 1% trans-dihydrocarvone. The major components of M. chamomilla essential oil were also confirmed as 47.9% α-bisabolol oxide A, 16.8% α-bisabolol, 13.8%, (Z)-β-farnesene, 5.8% α-bisabolol oxide, and 4.7% α-bisabolene oxide A. The IC50 values for M. chamomilla essential oil on A549, MCF7, PC3, and HEK293 cells were calculated as 208.54 ± 1.39, 315.44 ± 1.17, 197.52 ± 0.98, and 638.79 ± 1.15 μg/mL, respectively, whereas the IC50 values for M. spicata essential oil on A549, MCF7, and PC3 cells were 672.13 ± 2.57, 708.27 ± 2.05, and 206.49 ± 1.48 μg/mL, respectively. For M. spicata essential oil, no cytotoxic effects on healthy HEK293 cells were observed at the tested concentrations. The essential oils increased the apoptotic activity, where all results were statistically significant. According to the anti-inflammatory evaluation, both M. chamomilla and M. spicata oils showed selective COX-2 inhibitions, where the SI values were calculated as 0.30 and 0.67, respectively. Overall, both M. spicata and M. chamomilla essential oils showed selective inhibition on the COX-2 enzyme and apoptosis against the selected cancer cell lines for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, with this specific dual mode of action. The initial results encourage further detailed in vivo experimental evaluations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sevde
Nur Biltekin
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, School of Pharmacy, Istanbul Medipol University, 34815 Istanbul, Türkiye
- Department
of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute of Graduate Studies in
Sciences, Istanbul University, 34452 Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Ayşe Esra Karadağ
- Department
of Pharmacognosy, İstanbul Medipol
University, Faculty of Pharmacy, 34815 İstanbul, Türkiye
| | - Fatih Demirci
- Department
of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu
University, 26470 Eskişehir, Türkiye
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, Eastern Mediterranean University, 99450 Famagusta, Northern Cyprus, Türkiye
| | - Betül Demirci
- Department
of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu
University, 26470 Eskişehir, Türkiye
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Qasem A, Assaggaf H, Montesano D, Khalil Z, Al-Mijalli SH, Baaboua AEL, El Omari N, El Menyiy N, Bakrim S, Sheikh RA, Alshahrani MM, Awadh AAA, Zengin G, Bouyahya A, Mrabti HN. Determination of Chemical Compounds and Investigation of Biological Properties of Matricaria chamomilla Essential Oils, Honey, and Their Mixture. Molecules 2022; 27:5850. [PMID: 36144586 PMCID: PMC9505312 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27185850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This exploratory investigation aimed to determine the chemical composition and evaluate some biological properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial activities, of Matricaria chamomilla L. essential oils (EOs). EOs of M. chamomilla were obtained by hydrodistillation and phytochemical screening was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry (GC-MS). The antimicrobial activities were tested against different pathogenic strains of microorganisms by using disc diffusion assay, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) methods. The antidiabetic activity was performed in vitro using the enzyme inhibition test. The antioxidant activity of EOs was tested using the free radical scavenging ability (DPPH method), ferrous ion chelating (FIC) ability, and β-carotene bleaching assay. The anti-inflammatory effects were tested in vivo using the carrageenan-induced paw edema method and in vitro using the inhibition of the lipoxygenase test. The analysis of the phytochemical composition by GC-MS revealed that camphor (16.42%) was the major compound of EOs, followed by 3-carene (9.95%), β-myrcene (8.01%), and chamazulene (6.54%). MCEO, honey, and their mixture exhibited antioxidant activity against the DPPH assay (IC50 ranging from 533.89 ± 15.05 µg/mL to 1945.38 ± 12.71 µg/mL). The mixture exhibited the best radical scavenging activity, with an IC50 of 533.89 ± 15.05 µg/mL. As antidiabetic effect, EO presented the best values against α-glucosidase (265.57 ± 0.03 μg/mL) and α-amylase (121.44 ± 0.05 μg/mL). The EOs and honey mixture at a dose of 100 mg/kg exhibited a high anti-inflammatory effect, with 63.75% edema inhibition after 3 h. The impact of EOs on the studied species showed an excellent antimicrobial (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 (22.97 ± 0.16 mm)), antifungal (Aspergillus niger (18.13 ± 0.18 mm)) and anti-yeast (Candida albicans (21.07 ± 0.24 mm) effect against all the tested strains. The results obtained indicate that the EOs of M. chamomilla could be a potential drug target against diabetes, inflammation and microbial infections; however, further investigations to assess their bioactive molecules individually and in combination are greatly required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Qasem
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hamza Assaggaf
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Domenico Montesano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Zineb Khalil
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Drug Sciences Research Center, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat BP 6203, Morocco
| | - Samiah Hamad Al-Mijalli
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, Riyadh 11671, Saudi Arabia
| | - Aicha EL Baaboua
- Biology and Health Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan 93000, Morocco
| | - Nasreddine El Omari
- Laboratory of Histology, Embryology and Cytogenetic, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Taounate 34025, Morocco
| | - Naoual El Menyiy
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, National Agency of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Taounate 34025, Morocco
| | - Saad Bakrim
- Geo-Bio-Environment Engineering and Innovation Laboratory, Molecular Engineering, Biotechnologies and Innovation Team, Polydisciplinary Faculty of Taroudant, Ibn Zohr University, Agadir 80000, Morocco
| | - Ryan A. Sheikh
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Merae Alshahrani
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Najran University, Najran 61441, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Abdullah Al Awadh
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Najran University, Najran 61441, Saudi Arabia
| | - Gokhan Zengin
- Department of Biology, Science Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya 42250, Turkey
| | - Abdelhakim Bouyahya
- Laboratory of Human Pathologies Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat BP 6203, Morocco
| | - Hanae Naceiri Mrabti
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Bio Pharmaceutical and Toxicological Analysis Research Team, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University Mohammed V in Rabat, Rabat BP 6203, Morocco
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El Mihyaoui A, Esteves da Silva JCG, Charfi S, Candela Castillo ME, Lamarti A, Arnao MB. Chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla L.): A Review of Ethnomedicinal Use, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Uses. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:479. [PMID: 35454969 PMCID: PMC9032859 DOI: 10.3390/life12040479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Matricaria chamomilla L. is a famous medicinal plant distributed worldwide. It is widely used in traditional medicine to treat all kinds of diseases, including infections, neuropsychiatric, respiratory, gastrointestinal, and liver disorders. It is also used as a sedative, antispasmodic, antiseptic, and antiemetic. In this review, reports on M. chamomilla taxonomy, botanical and ecology description, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, biological and pharmacological properties, possible application in different industries, and encapsulation were critically gathered and summarized. Scientific search engines such as Web of Science, PubMed, Wiley Online, SpringerLink, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Google Scholar were used to gather data on M. chamomilla. The phytochemistry composition of essential oils and extracts of M. chamomilla has been widely analyzed, showing that the plant contains over 120 constituents. Essential oils are generally composed of terpenoids, such as α-bisabolol and its oxides A and B, bisabolone oxide A, chamazulene, and β-farnesene, among other compounds. On the other hand, M. chamomilla extracts were dominated by phenolic compounds, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, and coumarins. In addition, M. chamomilla demonstrated several biological properties such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-parasitic, insecticidal, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. These activities allow the application of M. chamomilla in the medicinal and veterinary field, food preservation, phytosanitary control, and as a surfactant and anti-corrosive agent. Finally, the encapsulation of M. chamomilla essential oils or extracts allows the enhancement of its biological activities and improvement of its applications. According to the findings, the pharmacological activities of M. chamomilla confirm its traditional uses. Indeed, M. chamomilla essential oils and extracts showed interesting antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, anti-pyretic, anti-allergic, and analgesic activities. Moreover, the most important application of M. chamomilla was in the medicinal field on animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amina El Mihyaoui
- Department of Plant Biology (Plant Physiology), Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (A.E.M.); (M.E.C.C.)
- Laboratory of Plant Biotechnology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan 93000, Morocco;
- CIQ(UP)—Research Center in Chemistry, DGAOT, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Joaquim C. G. Esteves da Silva
- CIQ(UP)—Research Center in Chemistry, DGAOT, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Saoulajan Charfi
- Biology and Health Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan 93000, Morocco;
| | - María Emilia Candela Castillo
- Department of Plant Biology (Plant Physiology), Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (A.E.M.); (M.E.C.C.)
| | - Ahmed Lamarti
- Laboratory of Plant Biotechnology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan 93000, Morocco;
| | - Marino B. Arnao
- Department of Plant Biology (Plant Physiology), Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (A.E.M.); (M.E.C.C.)
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Pandur E, Balatinácz A, Micalizzi G, Mondello L, Horváth A, Sipos K, Horváth G. Anti-inflammatory effect of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) essential oil prepared during different plant phenophases on THP-1 macrophages. BMC Complement Med Ther 2021; 21:287. [PMID: 34819075 PMCID: PMC8611982 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-021-03461-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most common Gram-negative bacterium associated with nosocomial respiratory infections. Lavender essential oil is mainly used in aromatherapy, but it has several pharmacological and therapeutic properties. Furthermore, it possesses antifungal and antibacterial activities. The anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils may depend on the composition and the ratio of the compounds. The constitution of the essential oils extracted from the different stages of flowering period varies, which makes it plausible that the collection time of the flowers influences the anti-inflammatory effects. Different types of essential oils reduce inflammation acting similarly by modulating the activity and action of the NFκB signalling pathway, which is the major regulator of the transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines. METHODS Lavender essential oils were distilled from lavender plant cultivated in Hungary and the flowers were harvested at the beginning and at the end of flowering period. The experiments were carried out on THP-1 human monocyte/macrophage cell line as in vitro cell culture model for monitoring the effects of lavender essential oils and the main compound linalool on P. aeruginosa LPS stimulated inflammation. The mRNA and protein levels of four pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-8 and TNFα were determined by Real Time PCR and ELISA measurements. The effects of essential oils were compared to the response to two NFκB inhibitors, luteolin and ACHP. RESULTS Linalool and lavender essential oil extracted from plants at the beginning of flowering period were successful in decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokine production following LPS pretreatment. In case of IL-8 and IL-1β lavender oil showed stronger effect compared to linalool and both of them acted similarly to NFκB inhibitors. Pretreatments with linalool and lavender essential oil/beginning of flowering period prevented pro-inflammatory cytokine production compared to LPS treatment alone. Although lavender essential oil/end of flowering period decreased IL-6, IL-1β and IL-8 mRNA expression in case of LPS pretreatment, it was not capable to reduce cytokine secretion. CONCLUSION Based on our results it has been proven that lavender essential oil extracted at the beginning of flowering period is a potent inhibitor of the synthesis of four pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, IL-β and TNFα of THP-1 cells. This supports the relevance of the collection of the lavender flowers from early blooming period for essential oil production and for the utilization as an anti-inflammatory treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edina Pandur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, H-7624, Rókus u. 2, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Alex Balatinácz
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, H-7624, Rókus u. 2, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Giuseppe Micalizzi
- Chromaleont s.r.l., c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98168, Messina, Italy
| | - Luigi Mondello
- Chromaleont s.r.l., c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98168, Messina, Italy.,Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98168, Messina, Italy.,Unit of Food Science and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome, 00128, Rome, Italy
| | - Adrienn Horváth
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, H-7624, Rókus u. 2, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Katalin Sipos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, H-7624, Rókus u. 2, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Györgyi Horváth
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, H-7624, Rókus u. 2, Pécs, Hungary.
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Essential and Recovery Oils from Matricaria chamomilla Flowers as Environmentally Friendly Fungicides Against Four Fungi Isolated from Cultural Heritage Objects. Processes (Basel) 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/pr7110809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recovery oils, obtained from the hydro-distillation of the fresh flowers of Matricaria chamomilla, as well as essential oils, were studied for their environmental purposes in cultural heritage. These oils were assayed for their antifungal activity against the growth of four molds isolated from archaeological manuscripts (Aspergillus niger), museum gypsum board Antique (A. flavus), museum archaeological tissue (A. terreus), and museum organic materials (Fusarium culmorum) of cultural heritage objects. Oils were applied to inhibit the growth of fungi at amounts of 25, 50, 75 and, 100 µL/mL, and compared with negative controls (0 µL/mL) or positive controls (Sertaconazol 3g/L). Using GC/MS analysis, the main chemical compounds identified in the essential oil were (Z)-β-farnesene (27%), D-limonene (15.25%), and α-bisabolol oxide A (14.9%), while the compounds identified in the recovery oil were α-bisabolol oxide A (18.6%), d-limonene (8.82%), and α-bisabolol oxide B (7.13%). A low amount of chamazulene was observed in both essential and recovery oils, with amounts of 0.73% and 3.50%, respectively. Recovery oil, at a concentration of 75 and 100 µL/mL, showed fungal mycelial inhibition (FMI) percentage for the growth of A. niger, with values of 78% and 85%, respectively. At a concentration of 100 µL/mL, both oils showed 100% FMI of A. terreus. Oils showed weak activity against the growth of A. flavus. Essential oils at 100 µL/mL had good activity against the growth of F. culmorum, with FMI of 86.6%. The results suggest the potential use of essential and recovery oils from M. chamomilla fresh flowers as environmentally friendly bio-fungicides.
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