Implementation factors of non-communicable disease policies and programmes for children and youth in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Despite declared life-course principles in non-communicable disease (NCD) prevention and management, worldwide focus has been on older rather than younger populations. However, the burden from childhood NCDs has mounted; particularly in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). There is limited knowledge regarding the implementation of paediatric NCD policies and programmes in LMICs, despite their disproportionate burden of morbidity and mortality. We aimed to understand the barriers to and facilitators of paediatric NCD policy and programme implementation in LMICs.

METHODS

We systematically searched medical databases, Web of Science and WHOLIS for studies on paediatric NCD policy and programme implementation in LMICs. Screening and quality assessment were performed independently by researchers, using consensus to resolve differences. Data extraction was conducted within the WHO health system building-blocks framework. Narrative thematic synthesis was conducted.

RESULTS

93 studies (1992-2020) were included, spanning 86 LMICs. Most were of moderate or high quality. 78% reported on paediatric NCDs outside the four major NCD categories contributing to the adult burden. Across the framework, more barriers than facilitators were identified. The most prevalently reported factors were related to health service delivery, with system fragmentation impeding the continuity of age-specific NCD care. A significant facilitator was intersectoral collaborations between health and education actors to deliver care in trusted community settings. Non-health factors were also important to paediatric NCD policies and programmes, such as community stakeholders, sociocultural support to caregivers and school disruptions.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple barriers prevent the optimal implementation of paediatric NCD policies and programmes in LMIC health systems. The low sociopolitical visibility of paediatric NCDs limits their prioritisation, resulting in fragmented service delivery and constraining the integration of programmes across key sectors impacting children, including health, education and social services. Implementation research is needed to understand specific contextual solutions to improve access to paediatric NCD services in diverse LMIC settings.

Regionalization of congenital cardiac surgical care: what it will take

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Decentralized, inconsistent healthcare delivery results in variable outcomes and wastes nearly one trillion dollars annually in the United States (US). Congenital heart surgery (CHS) is not immune due to high, variable costs and inconsistent outcomes across hospitals. Many European countries and Canada have addressed these issues by regionalizing CHS. Centralizing resources lowers costs, reduces in-hospital mortality and improves long-term survival. Although the impact on travel distance for patients is limited, the effect on healthcare disparities requires study. This review summarizes current data and integrates these into paths to regionalization through health policy, research, and academic collaboration.

RECENT FINDINGS

There are too many CHS programs in the US with unnecessarily high densities of centers in certain regions. This distribution lowers center and surgeon case volumes, creates redundancy, and increases variation in costs and outcomes. Simultaneously, adhering to suboptimal allocation impedes the understanding of optimal regionalization models to optimize congenital cardiac care delivery.

SUMMARY

CHS regionalization models developed for the US increase surgeon and center volume, decrease healthcare spending, and improve patient outcomes without substantially increasing travel distance. Regionalization in countries with few or no existing CHS programs is yet to be explored, but may be associated with more efficient spending and procedural complexity expansion.

Infrastructure Availability for the Care of Congenital Heart Disease Patients and Its Influence on Case Volume, Complexity and Access Among Healthcare Institutions in 17 Middle-Income Countries

The care for patients with congenital heart disease (CHD) is multi-disciplinary and resource intensive. There is limited information about the infrastructure available among programs that care for CHD patients in low and middle-income countries (LMIC). A survey covering the entire care-pathway for CHD, from initial assessment to inpatient care and outpatient follow-up, was administered to institutions participating in the International Quality Improvement Collaborative for Congenital Heart Disease (IQIC). Surgical case complexity-mix was collected from the IQIC registry and estimated surgical capacity requirement was based on population data. The statistical association of selected infrastructure with case volume, case-complexity and percentage of estimated case-burden actually treated, was analyzed. Thirty-seven healthcare institutions in seventeen countries with median annual surgical volume of 361 (41-3503) operations completed the survey. There was a median of two (1-16) operating room/s (OR), nine (2-80) intensive care unit (ICU) beds, three (1-20) cardiac surgeons, five (3-30) OR nurses, four (2-35) anesthesiologists, four (1-25) perfusionists, 28 (5-194) ICU nurses, six (0-30) cardiologists and three (1-15) interventional cardiologists. Higher surgical volume was associated with higher OR availability (p = 0.007), number of surgeons (p = 0.002), OR nurses (0.008), anesthesiologists (p = 0.04), perfusionists (p = 0.001), ICU nurses (p < 0.001), years of experience of the most senior surgeon (p = 0.03) or cardiologist (p = 0.05), and ICU bed capacity (p = 0.001). Location in an upper-middle income country (P = 0.04), OR availability (p = 0.02), and number of cardiologists (p = 0.004) were associated with performing a higher percentage of complex cases. This study demonstrates an overall deficit in the infrastructure available for the care of CHD patients among the participating institutions. While there is considerable variation across institutions surveyed, deficits in infrastructure that requires long-term investment like operating rooms, intensive care capacity, and availability of trained staff, are associated with reduced surgical capacity and access to CHD care.

Recent advances and challenges on application of tissue engineering for treatment of congenital heart disease

Congenital heart disease (CHD) affects a considerable number of children and adults worldwide. This implicates not only developmental disorders, high mortality, and reduced quality of life but also, high costs for the healthcare systems. CHD refers to a variety of heart and vascular malformations which could be very challenging to reconstruct the malformed region surgically, especially when the patient is an infant or a child. Advanced technology and research have offered a better mechanistic insight on the impact of CHD in the heart and vascular system of infants, children, and adults and identified potential therapeutic solutions. Many artificial materials and devices have been used for cardiovascular surgery. Surgeons and the medical industry created and evolved the ball valves to the carbon-based leaflet valves and introduced bioprosthesis as an alternative. However, with research further progressing, contracting tissue has been developed in laboratories and tissue engineering (TE) could represent a revolutionary answer for CHD surgery. Development of engineered tissue for cardiac and aortic reconstruction for developing bodies of infants and children can be very challenging. Nevertheless, using acellular scaffolds, allograft, xenografts, and autografts is already very common. Seeding of cells on surface and within scaffold is a key challenging factor for use of the above. The use of different types of stem cells has been investigated and proven to be suitable for tissue engineering. They are the most promising source of cells for heart reconstruction in a developing body, even for adults. Some stem cell types are more effective than others, with some disadvantages which may be eliminated in the future.

Risk factors for nosocomial infections after cardiac surgery in newborns with congenital heart disease

BACKGROUND

Congenital heart diseases are among the most common congenital malformations. Approximately 50% of the patients with congenital heart disease undergo cardiac surgery. Nosocomial infections (NIs) are the main complications and an important cause of increased morbidity and mortality associated with congenital heart diseases. This study's objective was to identify the risk factors associated with the development of NIs after cardiac surgery in newborns with congenital heart disease.

METHODS

This was a nested case-control study that included 112 newborns, including 56 cases (with NI) and 56 controls (without NI). Variables analyzed included perinatal history, associated congenital malformations, Risk-Adjusted Congenital Heart Surgery (RACHS-1) score, perioperative and postoperative factors, transfusions, length of central venous catheter, nutritional support, and mechanical ventilation.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Differences were calculated with the Mann-Whitney-U test, Pearson X², or Fisher's exact test. A multivariate logistic regression was used to determine the independent risk factors.

RESULTS

Sepsis was the most common NI (37.5%), and the main causative microorganisms were gram-positive cocci. The independent risk factors associated with NI were non-cardiac congenital malformations (OR 6.1, CI 95% 1.3-29.4), central venous catheter indwelling time > 14 days (OR 3.7, CI 95% 1.3-11.0), duration of mechanical ventilation > 7 days (OR 6.6, CI 95% 2.1-20.1), and ≥5 transfusions of blood products (OR 3.1, CI 95% 1.3-8.5). Mortality attributed to NI was 17.8%.

CONCLUSION

Newborns with non-cardiac congenital malformations and with >7 days of mechanical ventilation were at higher risk for a postoperative NI. Efforts must focus on preventable infections, especially in bloodstream catheter-related infections, which account for 20.5% of all NIs.

Pediatric cardiac surgery in low- and middle-income countries or emerging economies: a continuing challenge

A number of recent publications, addresses, seminars, and conferences have addressed the global backlog and increasing incidence of both congenital and acquired cardiac diseases in children, with reference to early and delayed recognition, late referral, availability of and access to services, costs, risks, databases, and early and long-term results and follow-up. A variety of proposals, recommendations, and projects have been outlined and documented. The ultimate goal of these endeavors is to increase the quality and quantity of pediatric cardiac care and surgery worldwide and particularly in underserved areas. A contemporary review of past and present initiatives is presented with a subsequent focus on the more challenging areas.

[Pulmonary hypertension associated with congenital heart disease and Eisenmenger syndrome]

Pulmonary arterial hypertension is a common complication of congenital heart disease (CHD). Congenital cardiopathies are the most frequent congenital malformations. The prevalence in our country remains unknown, based on birthrate, it is calculated that 12,000 to 16,000 infants in our country have some cardiac malformation. In patients with an uncorrected left-to-right shunt, increased pulmonary pressure leads to vascular remodeling and endothelial dysfunction secondary to an imbalance in vasoactive mediators which promotes vasoconstriction, inflammation, thrombosis, cell proliferation, impaired apotosis and fibrosis. The progressive rise in pulmonary vascular resistance and increased pressures in the right heart provocated reversal of the shunt may arise with the development of Eisenmenger' syndrome the most advanced form de Pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with congenital heart disease. The prevalence of Pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with CHD has fallen in developed countries in recent years that is not yet achieved in developing countries therefore diagnosed late as lack of hospital infrastructure and human resources for the care of patients with CHD. With the development of targeted medical treatments for pulmonary arterial hypertension, the concept of a combined medical and interventional/surgical approach for patients with Pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with CHD is a reality. We need to know the pathophysiological factors involved as well as a careful evaluation to determine the best therapeutic strategy.