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Merghany RM, El-Sawi SA, Naser AFA, Ezzat SM, Moustafa SFA, Meselhy MR. A comprehensive review of natural compounds and their structure-activity relationship in Parkinson's disease: exploring potential mechanisms. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2024:10.1007/s00210-024-03462-4. [PMID: 39392484 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-024-03462-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2024] [Accepted: 09/15/2024] [Indexed: 10/12/2024]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopamine-producing cells in the Substantia nigra region of the brain. Complementary and alternative medicine approaches have been utilized as adjuncts to conventional therapies for managing the symptoms and progression of PD. Natural compounds have gained attention for their potential neuroprotective effects and ability to target various pathways involved in the pathogenesis of PD. This comprehensive review aims to provide an in-depth analysis of the molecular targets and mechanisms of natural compounds in various experimental models of PD. This review will also explore the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of these compounds and assess the clinical studies investigating the impact of these natural compounds on individuals with PD. The insights shared in this review have the potential to pave the way for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies and interventions for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rana M Merghany
- Department of Pharmacognosy, National Research Centre, 33 El-Buhouth Street, Cairo, 12622, Egypt.
| | - Salma A El-Sawi
- Department of Pharmacognosy, National Research Centre, 33 El-Buhouth Street, Cairo, 12622, Egypt
| | - Asmaa F Aboul Naser
- Department of Therapeutic Chemistry, National Research Centre, 33 El Buhouth St, Cairo, 12622, Egypt
| | - Shahira M Ezzat
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, Cairo, 11562, Egypt
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts (MSA), Giza, 12451, Egypt
| | - Sherifa F A Moustafa
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, Cairo, 11562, Egypt
| | - Meselhy R Meselhy
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, Cairo, 11562, Egypt.
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Newcorn JH, Ivanov I, Krone B, Li X, Duhoux S, White S, Schulz KP, Bédard ACV, Pedraza J, Adler L, Blair RJ. Neurobiological basis of reinforcement-based decision making in adults with ADHD treated with lisdexamfetamine dimesylate: Preliminary findings and implications for mechanisms influencing clinical improvement. J Psychiatr Res 2024; 170:19-26. [PMID: 38101205 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.11.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND ADHD is often described as a disorder of altered reward sensitivity, yet few studies have examined the extent to which: (i) treatments for ADHD impact reward-related mechanisms; and (ii) changes in the reward system are associated with clinical improvement. This study addresses these issues - examining the extent to which clinical improvement following lisdexamfetamine (LDX) treatment is associated with changes in brain reward system activation. METHODS Twenty adults (M = 11, 55%, F = 9, 45%), ages 19-52 (M = 33.9, SD = 10.0) with ADHD participated in a randomized cross-over study with lisdexamfetamine (LDX) and placebo (PB). Changes in brain activation were assessed during functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) scans: after receiving 3-5 weeks of treatment with LDX and 3-5 weeks of no drug/PB. fMRI contrasts were derived from the passive-avoidance (PA) learning task, which assessed reward-related learning using computational variables. We analyzed the following conditions: the Choice-Phase, modulated by the expected value (EV; i.e., object-choose and object-reject), and the Feedback-Phase, modulated by the prediction error (PE; i.e., reward and punish). Clinical symptom severity was assessed via interview with the ADHD-Rating Scale (ADHD-RS-IV). To address the primary objective, we performed group-level mass-univariate regression analyses between LDX and PB of percent change of the ADHD-RS total scores and the four contrast images under the Choice- and Feedback-conditions. Significance was set at a whole-brain voxel-wise threshold of p < 0.05 with family-wise error (FWE) correction and an extent (cluster) threshold of 50 contiguous voxels. RESULTS Improvement in ADHD symptoms with LDX was accompanied by significantly increased activation in a series of brain regions previously implicated in reinforcement processing in the choice and feedback conditions (e.g., left caudate and putamen, right orbitofrontal cortex, left middle frontal, superior frontal, and precentral gyri). CONCLUSIONS These findings, while preliminary, are the first to show that ADHD symptom improvement with stimulant treatment is associated with increased responsiveness of brain systems engaged in reward processing. Results support the hypothesis that LDX treatment may restore balance to dysfunction (e.g., hypoactivation) within the brain reward circuitry in adults with ADHD. Trial RegistrationClinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01924429.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey H Newcorn
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
| | - Iliyan Ivanov
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Beth Krone
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Xiaobo Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA
| | | | | | - Kurt P Schulz
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Anne-Claude V Bédard
- Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, ON, M5S 1V6, USA
| | - Juan Pedraza
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Lenard Adler
- New York University Crossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Robert James Blair
- Center for Neurobehavioral Research, Boys Town National Research Hospital, Boys Town, NE, 68010, USA
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Stoop J, Douma EH, van der Vlag M, Smidt MP, van der Heide LP. Tyrosine hydroxylase phosphorylation is under the control of serine 40. J Neurochem 2023; 167:376-393. [PMID: 37776259 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Tyrosine hydroxylase catalyzes the initial and rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter dopamine. The phosphorylation state of Ser40 and Ser31 is believed to exert a direct effect on the enzymatic activity of tyrosine hydroxylase. Interestingly, some studies report that Ser31 phosphorylation affects Ser40 phosphorylation, while Ser40 phosphorylation has no effect on Ser31 phosphorylation, a process named hierarchical phosphorylation. Here, we provide a detailed investigation into the signal transduction mechanisms regulating Ser40 and Ser31 phosphorylation in dopaminergic mouse MN9D and Neuro2A cells. We find that cyclic nucleotide signaling drives Ser40 phosphorylation, and that Ser31 phosphorylation is strongly regulated by ERK signaling. Inhibition of ERK1/2 with UO126 or PD98059 reduced Ser31 phosphorylation, but surprisingly had no effect on Ser40 phosphorylation, contradicting a role for Ser31 in the regulation of Ser40. Moreover, to elucidate a possible hierarchical mechanism controlling tyrosine hydroxylase phosphorylation, we introduced tyrosine hydroxylase variants in Neuro2A mouse neuroblastoma cells that mimic either phosphorylated or unphosphorylated serine residues. When we introduced a Ser40Ala tyrosine hydroxylase variant, Ser31 phosphorylation was completely absent. Additionally, neither the tyrosine hydroxylase variant Ser31Asp, nor the variant Ser31Ala had any significant effect on basal Ser40 phosphorylation levels. These results suggest that tyrosine hydroxylase is not controlled by hierarchical phosphorylation in the sense that first Ser31 has to be phosphorylated and subsequently Ser40, but, conversely, that Ser40 phosphorylation is essential for Ser31 phosphorylation. Overall our study suggests that Ser40 is the crucial residue to target so as to modulate tyrosine hydroxylase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Stoop
- Macrobian Biotech B.V., Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Erik H Douma
- Macrobian Biotech B.V., Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Marten P Smidt
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lars P van der Heide
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Pittolo S, Yokoyama S, Willoughby DD, Taylor CR, Reitman ME, Tse V, Wu Z, Etchenique R, Li Y, Poskanzer KE. Dopamine activates astrocytes in prefrontal cortex via α1-adrenergic receptors. Cell Rep 2022; 40:111426. [PMID: 36170823 PMCID: PMC9555850 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is a hub for cognitive control, and dopamine profoundly influences its functions. In other brain regions, astrocytes sense diverse neurotransmitters and neuromodulators and, in turn, orchestrate regulation of neuroactive substances. However, basic physiology of PFC astrocytes, including which neuromodulatory signals they respond to and how they contribute to PFC function, is unclear. Here, we characterize divergent signaling signatures in mouse astrocytes of the PFC and primary sensory cortex, which show differential responsiveness to locomotion. We find that PFC astrocytes express receptors for dopamine but are unresponsive through the Gs/Gi-cAMP pathway. Instead, fast calcium signals in PFC astrocytes are time locked to dopamine release and are mediated by α1-adrenergic receptors both ex vivo and in vivo. Further, we describe dopamine-triggered regulation of extracellular ATP at PFC astrocyte territories. Thus, we identify astrocytes as active players in dopaminergic signaling in the PFC, contributing to PFC function though neuromodulator receptor crosstalk. Pittolo et al. demonstrate that the neuromodulator dopamine targets astrocytes, a type of brain cell, via receptors specific to another neuromodulator—norepinephrine. This study provides groundwork on how dopamine affects non-neuronal brain cells and suggests that crosstalk between neuromodulatory pathways occurs in vivo, with possible clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Pittolo
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sae Yokoyama
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Drew D Willoughby
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Charlotte R Taylor
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Michael E Reitman
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Vincent Tse
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Zhaofa Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking University School of Life Sciences, Beijing 100871, China; Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Roberto Etchenique
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Analítica y Química Física, INQUIMAE, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón 2, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yulong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking University School of Life Sciences, Beijing 100871, China; Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Kira E Poskanzer
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Lukeš V, Kováčová A, Hartmann H. On thermodynamics of electron, proton and PCET processes of catechol, hydroquinone and resorcinol – Consequences for redox properties of polyphenolic compounds. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.119356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Higgins GA, Silenieks LB. The Effects of Drug Treatments for ADHD in Measures of Cognitive Performance. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2022; 57:321-362. [PMID: 35606638 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2022_341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Based on core symptoms of inattention and deficient impulse control, and the identification of effective pharmacotherapies such as amphetamine (AMP; Adderall®), methylphenidate (MPH; Ritalin®), and atomoxetine (ATX; Strattera®), ADHD is a clinical condition which provides opportunity for translational research. Neuropsychological tests such as the 5-Choice and Continuous Performance Tasks, which measure aspects of attention and impulse control in animals and humans, provide scope for both forward (animal to human) and reverse (human to animal) translation. Rodent studies support pro-attentive effects of AMP and MPH and effectiveness in controlling some forms of impulsive behavior. In contrast, any pro-attentive effects of ATX appear to be less consistent, the most reliable effects of ATX are recorded in tests of impulsivity. These differences may account for AMP and MPH being recognized as first-line treatments for ADHD with a higher efficacy relative to ATX. DSM-5 classifies three "presentations" of ADHD: predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-I), predominantly hyperactive/impulsive type (ADHD-HI), or combined (ADHD-C). Presently, it is unclear whether AMP, MPH, or ATX has differential levels of efficacy across these presentation types. Nonetheless, these studies encourage confidence for the forward translation of NCEs in efforts to identify newer pharmacotherapies for ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy A Higgins
- Intervivo Solutions, Toronto, ON, Canada.
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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Islam KUS, Meli N, Blaess S. The Development of the Mesoprefrontal Dopaminergic System in Health and Disease. Front Neural Circuits 2021; 15:746582. [PMID: 34712123 PMCID: PMC8546303 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2021.746582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Midbrain dopaminergic neurons located in the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area are the main source of dopamine in the brain. They send out projections to a variety of forebrain structures, including dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens, and prefrontal cortex (PFC), establishing the nigrostriatal, mesolimbic, and mesoprefrontal pathways, respectively. The dopaminergic input to the PFC is essential for the performance of higher cognitive functions such as working memory, attention, planning, and decision making. The gradual maturation of these cognitive skills during postnatal development correlates with the maturation of PFC local circuits, which undergo a lengthy functional remodeling process during the neonatal and adolescence stage. During this period, the mesoprefrontal dopaminergic innervation also matures: the fibers are rather sparse at prenatal stages and slowly increase in density during postnatal development to finally reach a stable pattern in early adulthood. Despite the prominent role of dopamine in the regulation of PFC function, relatively little is known about how the dopaminergic innervation is established in the PFC, whether and how it influences the maturation of local circuits and how exactly it facilitates cognitive functions in the PFC. In this review, we provide an overview of the development of the mesoprefrontal dopaminergic system in rodents and primates and discuss the role of altered dopaminergic signaling in neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ushna S Islam
- Neurodevelopmental Genetics, Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Norisa Meli
- Neurodevelopmental Genetics, Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.,Institute of Neuropathology, Section for Translational Epilepsy Research, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sandra Blaess
- Neurodevelopmental Genetics, Institute of Reconstructive Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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Dissociating direct and indirect effects: a theoretical framework of how latent toxoplasmosis affects cognitive profile across the lifespan. Neurobiol Aging 2021; 102:119-128. [PMID: 33765425 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
About one-third of the world's population has latent toxoplasmosis, which is typically most prevalent in old age due to its lifelong persistence. Most infected people do not reveal clinically relevant symptoms, but T. gondii might trigger cognitive changes in otherwise asymptomatic individuals. As intact cognitive processes are essential for various achievements and successful aging, this review focuses on the cognitive profile associated with latent toxoplasmosis across the lifespan. It could be explained by a shift in balance between direct effects (increased dopamine synthesis) and indirect effects (neurodegeneration and chronic inflammation, which can decrease dopamine levels). Based thereon, we provide a possibly comprehensive framework of how T. gondii can differently affect cognitive performance across the lifespan (i.e., from increased catecholaminergic signaling in young age to decreased signaling in old age). We outline how future studies may inform our knowledge on the role of individual differences in response to T. gondii and how longitudinal studies can help trace the temporal dynamics in the shift of the balance between direct and indirect effects.
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Amadio P, Zarà M, Sandrini L, Ieraci A, Barbieri SS. Depression and Cardiovascular Disease: The Viewpoint of Platelets. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E7560. [PMID: 33066277 PMCID: PMC7589256 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Depression is a major cause of morbidity and low quality of life among patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD), and it is now considered as an independent risk factor for major adverse cardiovascular events. Increasing evidence indicates not only that depression worsens the prognosis of cardiac events, but also that a cross-vulnerability between the two conditions occurs. Among the several mechanisms proposed to explain this interplay, platelet activation is the more attractive, seeing platelets as potential mirror of the brain function. In this review, we dissected the mechanisms linking depression and CVD highlighting the critical role of platelet behavior during depression as trigger of cardiovascular complication. In particular, we will discuss the relationship between depression and molecules involved in the CVD (e.g., catecholamines, adipokines, lipids, reactive oxygen species, and chemokines), emphasizing their impact on platelet activation and related mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Amadio
- Unit of Brain-Heart Axis: Cellular and Molecular Mechanism, Centro Cardiologico Monzino IRCCS, 20138 Milan, Italy; (M.Z.); (L.S.)
| | - Marta Zarà
- Unit of Brain-Heart Axis: Cellular and Molecular Mechanism, Centro Cardiologico Monzino IRCCS, 20138 Milan, Italy; (M.Z.); (L.S.)
| | - Leonardo Sandrini
- Unit of Brain-Heart Axis: Cellular and Molecular Mechanism, Centro Cardiologico Monzino IRCCS, 20138 Milan, Italy; (M.Z.); (L.S.)
| | - Alessandro Ieraci
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology and Functional Neurogenomics, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy;
| | - Silvia Stella Barbieri
- Unit of Brain-Heart Axis: Cellular and Molecular Mechanism, Centro Cardiologico Monzino IRCCS, 20138 Milan, Italy; (M.Z.); (L.S.)
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Mückschel M, Roessner V, Beste C. Task experience eliminates catecholaminergic effects on inhibitory control - A randomized, double-blind cross-over neurophysiological study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2020; 35:89-99. [PMID: 32402650 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Catecholaminergic neural transmission plays an important role during the inhibition of prepotent responses. Methylphenidate (MPH) is an important drug that modulates the catecholaminergic system. However, theoretical considerations suggest that the effects of drugs (e.g. MPH) on cognitive control may depend on prior learning effects. Here we investigate this in a conflict-modulated Go/Nogo task and evaluate neurophysiological processes associated with this dynamic using EEG signal decomposition methods and source localization analysis. The behavioral data show that prior learning experiences eliminate effects of MPH on response inhibition processes. On a neurophysiological level, we show that MPH modulates specific processes in medial frontal brain regions. Although MPH seems to consistently modulate neurophysiological processes associated with response inhibition, this is no longer sufficient to modulate behavioral performance once learning or task familiarization processes have taken place. An important consequence of this study finding is that it may be important to adjust MPH dosage depending on learning effects in a specific setting to constantly increase cognitive control functions in that setting. This has important implications for clinical practice, since MPH is the first-line pharmacological therapy in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Cross-over study designs with constant doses of MPH can mask effects on cognitive functions. The impact of learning needs careful consideration in cross-over study designs examining catecholaminergic drug effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Mückschel
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine of the TU Dresden, Schubertstraße 42, D-01309 Dresden, Germany
| | - Veit Roessner
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine of the TU Dresden, Schubertstraße 42, D-01309 Dresden, Germany
| | - Christian Beste
- Cognitive Neurophysiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine of the TU Dresden, Schubertstraße 42, D-01309 Dresden, Germany.
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