A network meta-analysis of the efficacy of belatacept, cyclosporine and tacrolimus for immunosuppression therapy in adult renal transplant recipients

Tacrolimus treatment in women with repeated implantation failures

Background

Tacrolimus is an immunosuppressive drug that works as a calcineurin inhibitor to improve the reproductive outcomes for women who have experienced multiple implantation failures (RIF) and show elevated type 1 helper T (Th1)/Th2 cell ratios.

Methods

In the first part of this review, we indicate how we re-evaluated the cut-off index for selecting the participants in a tacrolimus regimen via transferred euploid blastocysts. In the second part, we cite cases where tacrolimus has improved the live birth rate for women who have experienced recurrent pregnancy losses (PRL) and we introduce the utility of tacrolimus treatment to prevent obstetrical complications.

Main Findings

After reconsideration of the cut-off index (Th1/Th2 ≥ 11.8), however, the pregnancy rates of women with tacrolimus were significantly higher than those of women without tacrolimus. The PRL women treated with tacrolimus showed significantly lower rates of biochemical pregnancy, but higher live-birth rates compared with women who were not treated with tacrolimus. Moreover, prior severe obstetrical complications could be controlled via the administration of tacrolimus during pregnancy.

Conclusion

Tacrolimus has become indispensable in the field of solid-organ transplantation, and in the near future, it should become an essential agent in the reproductive field, as well.

The impact of the use of immunosuppressive treatment after an embryo transfer in increasing the rate of live birth

The tolerance of the immune system for the semi-allogeneic embryo is promoted by several factors and the cells involved in the immune system and factors in the mother during pregnancy. The dysregulation of the immune responses between the mother and fetus is a risk factor that raises the likelihood of rejection of the embryo and reproductive failure. To safeguard embryos and prevent immunological attacks, it is critical to suppress immunological rejection and encourage immunological tolerance. Based on current medical literature, it seems that immune cell management through immunosuppressive therapies can address reproductive failures. Immunosuppressive treatment has demonstrated encouraging results in terms of enhancing outcomes related to pregnancy and rates of live birth by regulating the immune responses of mothers and positively impacting the reproductive processes of humans. Currently, there is scarcity of high-quality data regarding the safety and efficacy of immunosuppressive therapies for children and mothers. Therefore, it is important to exercise caution while selecting use of any immunosuppressive therapy in pregnancy. This mini review provides a comprehensive overview of the existing literature regarding the impact of Calcineurin Inhibitors and anti-TNF treatment on improving the live birth rate following embryo transfer.

Risks and ways of preventing kidney dysfunction in drug-induced immunosuppression in solid organ recipients

Immunosuppressive therapy (IMT) is the cornerstone of treatment after transplantation. The goal of immunosuppression is to prevent acute and chronic rejection while maximizing patient survival and long-term graft function. However, the expected effects of IMT must be balanced against the major adverse effects of these drugs and their toxicity. The purpose of this review is to summarize world experience on current immunosuppressive strategies and to assess their effects on renal function.

Immunosuppression after uterus transplantation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Clinical uterus transplantation (UTx) is growing rapidly. The procedure represents the only therapy for women with absolute uterine factor infertility to give birth to a biological baby. Immunosuppression after UTx needs to carefully balance effects with the healthy mother and baby. Unique for UTx is the 'temporary' character of the procedure with a transplant hysterectomy being performed after delivery. Most of the practice on immunosuppression in UTx is currently based on the experience in solid organ transplantation (SOT).

RECENT FINDINGS

Clinical UTx-trials have been performed in centers worldwide during the recent years and experience on immunosuppression has accumulated.

SUMMARY

Immunosuppression in UTx has been successfully applied as maintenance treatment in addition to effectively treating acute T- and B-cell mediated rejections. Understanding the biology of UTx in more detail is expected to refine future approaches.

Quantifying spillover benefits in value assessment: a case study of increased graft survival on the US kidney transplant waitlist

AIM

To quantify the wider impacts of increased graft survival on the size of the kidney transplant waitlist and health and economic outcomes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The analysis employed known steady-state solutions to a double-queueing system as well as simulations of this system. Baseline input parameters were sourced from the Organ Procurement and Transplant Network and the United States Renal Data System. Three increased graft survival scenarios were modeled: decreases in repeat transplant candidates joining the waitlist of 25%, 50%, and 100%.

RESULTS

Under the three scenarios, we estimated that the US waitlist size would decrease from 91,822 to 85,461 (6.9% decrease), 80,073 (12.8% decrease), and 69,340 (24.4% decrease), respectively. Patient outcomes improved, with lifetime quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) for a 1-year cohort of transplant recipients increasing by 10,010, 16,888, and 43,345 over the three scenarios. Discounted lifetime costs for the cohort in the new steady state were lower by $1.6 billion, $2.3 billion, and $9.0 billion for each scenario, respectively. Spillover impacts (i.e. benefits that accrued beyond the patients who directly experienced increased graft survival) accounted for 41-48% of the QALY gains and ranged from cost increases of 3.3% to decreases of 5.5%.

LIMITATIONS

The model is a simplification of reality and does not account for the full degree of patient heterogeneity occurring in the real world. Health economic outcomes are extrapolated based on the assumption that the median patient is representative of the overall population.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing graft survival reduces demand from repeat transplants candidates, allowing additional candidates to receive transplants. These spillover impacts decrease waitlist size and shorten wait times, leading to improvements in graft and patient survival as well as quality-of-life. Cost-effectiveness analyses of treatments that increase kidney graft survival should incorporate spillover benefits that accrue beyond the direct recipient of an intervention.

Belatacept-based immunosuppression with simultaneous calcineurin inhibitor avoidance and early corticosteroid withdrawal: A prospective, randomized multicenter trial

Simultaneous calcineurin inhibitor avoidance (CNIA) and early corticosteroid withdrawal (ESW) have not been achieved primarily due to excessive acute rejection. This trial compared 2 belatacept-based CNIA/ESW regimens with a tacrolimus-based ESW regimen. Kidney transplant recipients were randomized to receive alemtuzumab/belatacept, rabbit anti-thymocyte globulin (rATG)/belatacept, or rATG/tacrolimus. The combinatorial primary endpoint consisted of patient death, renal allograft loss, or a Modification of Diet in Renal Disease-calculated eGFR of <45 mL/min/1.73 m² at 12 months. Results are reported by treatment group (alemtuzumab/belatacept, rATG/belatacept, and rATG/tacrolimus). Superiority was not observed at 1 year for the primary endpoint (9/107 [8.4%], 15/104 [14.4%], and 14/105 [13.3%], respectively; P = NS) for either belatacept-based regimen. Differences were not observed for secondary endpoints (death, death-censored graft loss, or estimated glomerular filtration rates < 45 mL/min/1.73 m² ). Differences were observed in biopsy-proved acute cellular rejection (10.3%, 18.3%, and 1.9%, respectively) (P < .001), but not in antibody-mediated rejection, mixed acute rejection, or de novo donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies. Neurologic and electrolyte abnormality adverse events were less frequent under belatacept. Belatacept-based CNIA/ESW regimens did not prove to be superior for the primary or secondary endpoints. Belatacept-treated patients demonstrated an increase in biopsy-proved acute cellular rejection and reduced neurologic and metabolic adverse events. These results demonstrate that simultaneous CNIA/ESW is feasible without excessive acute rejection.

The Last Year Before Graft Failure Negatively Impacts Economic Outcomes and is Associated With Greater Healthcare Resource Utilization Compared With Previous Years in the United Kingdom: Results of a Retrospective Observational Study

Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text.

Background.

Kidney and liver transplantation is the standard of care for end-stage renal or liver disease. However, long-term survival of kidney and liver grafts remain suboptimal. Our study aimed to understand the healthcare resources utilized and their associated costs in the years before graft failure.

Methods.

Two noninterventional, retrospective, observational studies were conducted in cohorts of kidney or liver transplant patients. Once identified, patients were followed using the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink linked to the Hospital Episode Statistics databases from the date of transplantation to the date of the first graft failure. Total healthcare costs in the year before graft failure (primary endpoint) and during years 2–5 before graft failure (secondary endpoint) were collected.

Results.

A total of 269 kidney and 81 liver transplant patients were analyzed. The mean total costs were highest for all resource components in the last year before graft failure, except for mean costs of immunosuppressive therapy per patient, which decreased slightly by index date (ie, graft failure). The mean total healthcare costs in the last year before graft failure were £8115 for kidney and £9988 for liver transplant patients and were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than years 2–5 before graft failure. Mean healthcare costs for years 2, 3, 4, and 5 before graft failure were £5925, £5575, £5469, and £5468, respectively, for kidney, and £6763, £7042, £6020, and £5651, respectively, for liver transplant patients.

Conclusions.

Total healthcare costs in the last year before graft failure are substantial and statistically significantly higher than years 2–5 before graft failure, in both kidney and liver transplant patients. Our findings show the economic burden placed on healthcare services in the years before graft failure.

Cyclosporine A improves pregnancy outcomes in women with recurrent pregnancy loss and elevated Th1/Th2 ratio

Recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) is a one of the most common obstetrical complications. Since, the successful pregnancy occurs in T helper 2 (Th2)-dominant situation and since, Th1 type immunity is related to pregnancy failure, we investigated the effects of cyclosporine on Th1 and Th2 cells in RPL women. Totally, 76 RPL patients (38 women as treated group and 38 as control group) were included in this study. Flow cytometry was utilized to analyze the frequency of Th1 and Th2 in blood samples. Also, real-time polymerase chain reaction was carried out to assess the messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of transcription factors and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to evaluate Th1 and Th2 related cytokines. Significant decrease in Th1 frequency (p = 0.0004), Th1/Th2 ratio (p < 0.0001), T-bet mRNA expression (p < 0.0001), interferon-γ (p = 0.0007), and tumor necrosis factor α (p = 0.0002) secretion level were observed in cyclosporine group. Moreover, significant increase in Th2 frequency (p < 0.0001), mRNA expression of GATA binding protein 3 (p = 0.0001), and interleukin 10 secretion level (p = 0.0027) was also evident in treated group. At the end of the investigation, 31 (81.5%) patients in cyclosporine-treated group had successful childbirth when compared with 16 (42.1%) women in control group (p = 0.0001). Given this, cyclosporine treatment for RPL patients with elevated Th1/Th2 ratio can result in improved pregnancy outcome.

Pulmonary Infections in Immunocompromised Hosts: Clinical

Pulmonary infections in immunocompromised patients remain a significant contributor to mortality, morbidity, and health care-associated costs in such a vulnerable patient population. Their epidemiology is changing, set forth by new trends in immunosuppressive regimens and also prophylaxis. The host characteristics, presenting clinical symptomatology, along with radiographic patterns, have also evolved. The microbiology diagnostics are now enriched with nonculture methods for better identification of the causative pathogens. Chest imaging remains the cornerstone of the initial workup. Our article will examine the new trends in epidemiology, clinical findings, and diagnostics for immunocompromised patients with pulmonary infections (transplant recipients, neutropenic hosts, HIV-infected patients, and patients with autoimmune conditions). We will also review the differential diagnosis that most of the times includes malignancies and drug or radiation-related toxicities.

Immunosuppressive therapy for kidney transplantation in adults: a systematic review and economic model

BACKGROUND

End-stage renal disease is a long-term irreversible decline in kidney function requiring renal replacement therapy: kidney transplantation, haemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. The preferred option is kidney transplantation, followed by immunosuppressive therapy (induction and maintenance therapy) to reduce the risk of kidney rejection and prolong graft survival.

OBJECTIVES

To review and update the evidence for the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of basiliximab (BAS) (Simulect(®), Novartis Pharmaceuticals UK Ltd) and rabbit anti-human thymocyte immunoglobulin (rATG) (Thymoglobulin(®), Sanofi) as induction therapy, and immediate-release tacrolimus (TAC) (Adoport(®), Sandoz; Capexion(®), Mylan; Modigraf(®), Astellas Pharma; Perixis(®), Accord Healthcare; Prograf(®), Astellas Pharma; Tacni(®), Teva; Vivadex(®), Dexcel Pharma), prolonged-release tacrolimus (Advagraf(®) Astellas Pharma), belatacept (BEL) (Nulojix(®), Bristol-Myers Squibb), mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) (Arzip(®), Zentiva; CellCept(®), Roche Products; Myfenax(®), Teva), mycophenolate sodium (MPS) (Myfortic(®), Novartis Pharmaceuticals UK Ltd), sirolimus (SRL) (Rapamune(®), Pfizer) and everolimus (EVL) (Certican(®), Novartis) as maintenance therapy in adult renal transplantation.

METHODS

Clinical effectiveness searches were conducted until 18 November 2014 in MEDLINE (via Ovid), EMBASE (via Ovid), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (via Wiley Online Library) and Web of Science (via ISI), Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects and Health Technology Assessment (The Cochrane Library via Wiley Online Library) and Health Management Information Consortium (via Ovid). Cost-effectiveness searches were conducted until 18 November 2014 using a costs or economic literature search filter in MEDLINE (via Ovid), EMBASE (via Ovid), NHS Economic Evaluation Database (via Wiley Online Library), Web of Science (via ISI), Health Economic Evaluations Database (via Wiley Online Library) and the American Economic Association's electronic bibliography (via EconLit, EBSCOhost). Included studies were selected according to predefined methods and criteria. A random-effects model was used to analyse clinical effectiveness data (odds ratios for binary data and mean differences for continuous data). Network meta-analyses were undertaken within a Bayesian framework. A new discrete time-state transition economic model (semi-Markov) was developed, with acute rejection, graft function (GRF) and new-onset diabetes mellitus used to extrapolate graft survival. Recipients were assumed to be in one of three health states: functioning graft, graft loss or death.

RESULTS

Eighty-nine randomised controlled trials (RCTs), of variable quality, were included. For induction therapy, no treatment appeared more effective than another in reducing graft loss or mortality. Compared with placebo/no induction, rATG and BAS appeared more effective in reducing biopsy-proven acute rejection (BPAR) and BAS appeared more effective at improving GRF. For maintenance therapy, no treatment was better for all outcomes and no treatment appeared most effective at reducing graft loss. BEL + MMF appeared more effective than TAC + MMF and SRL + MMF at reducing mortality. MMF + CSA (ciclosporin), TAC + MMF, SRL + TAC, TAC + AZA (azathioprine) and EVL + CSA appeared more effective than CSA + AZA and EVL + MPS at reducing BPAR. SRL + AZA, TAC + AZA, TAC + MMF and BEL + MMF appeared to improve GRF compared with CSA + AZA and MMF + CSA. In the base-case deterministic and probabilistic analyses, BAS, MMF and TAC were predicted to be cost-effective at £20,000 and £30,000 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY). When comparing all regimens, only BAS + TAC + MMF was cost-effective at £20,000 and £30,000 per QALY.

LIMITATIONS

For included trials, there was substantial methodological heterogeneity, few trials reported follow-up beyond 1 year, and there were insufficient data to perform subgroup analysis. Treatment discontinuation and switching were not modelled.

FUTURE WORK

High-quality, better-reported, longer-term RCTs are needed. Ideally, these would be sufficiently powered for subgroup analysis and include health-related quality of life as an outcome.

CONCLUSION

Only a regimen of BAS induction followed by maintenance with TAC and MMF is likely to be cost-effective at £20,000-30,000 per QALY.

STUDY REGISTRATION

This study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42014013189.

FUNDING

The National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment programme.

Traditional Chinese Medicine for Refractory Nephrotic Syndrome: Strategies and Promising Treatments

Refractory nephrotic syndrome (RNS) is an immune-related kidney disease with poor clinical outcomes. Standard treatments include corticosteroids as the initial therapy and other immunosuppressants as second-line options. A substantial proportion of patients with RNS are resistant to or dependent on immunosuppressive drugs and often experience unremitting edema and proteinuria, cycles of remission and relapse, and/or serious adverse events due to long-term immunosuppression. Traditional Chinese medicine has a long history of treating complicated kidney diseases and holds great potential for providing effective treatments for RNS. This review describes the Chinese medical theories relating to the pathogenesis of RNS and discusses the strategies and treatment options using Chinese herbal medicine. Available preclinical and clinical evidence strongly supports the integration of traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine for improving the outcome of RNS. Herbal medicine such as Astragalus membranaceus, Stephania tetrandra S. Moore, and Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F can serve as the alternative therapy when patients fail to respond to immunosuppression or as the complementary therapy to improve therapeutic efficacy and reduce side effects of immunosuppressive agents. Wuzhi capsules (Schisandra sphenanthera extract) with tacrolimus and tetrandrine with corticosteroids are two herb-drug combinations that have shown great promise and warrant further studies.