Effect of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) vaccination on PCV2-viremic piglets after experimental PCV2 challenge

Molecular Positivity of Porcine Circovirus Type 2 Associated with Production Practices on Farms in Jalisco, Mexico

The modernization of pig production has led to increasingly larger populations of pigs. This dynamic allows for accelerated production and ensures a steady pork supply but also facilitates the spread of infections. PCV2 is a ubiquitous virus and can cause PCV2-associated diseases, depending on production practices. This study aimed to evaluate the conditions of pig production in the state of Jalisco, Mexico, and correlate them with PCV2. A total of 4207 serum samples from 80 farms were analyzed. Epidemiological data were collected and used to investigate factors associated with PCV2 detection. A relative frequency of approximately 30% was detected, primarily in grower pigs maintained on multisite farms. Several production practices, particularly biosecurity measures, were associated with PCV2 on the analyzed farms.

Pluck-pools as diagnostic samples for detecting porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and porcine circovirus type 2 in porcine abortion material and stillbirths

Investigating infectious agents in porcine abortion material and stillborn piglets poses challenges for practitioners and diagnostic laboratories. In this study, pooled samples of individual reference organs (thymus and heart) from a total of 1000 aborted fetuses and stillborn piglets were investigated using quantitative PCR protocols for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus 1 (PRRSV-1) and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). Simultaneously, a pluck-pool containing equivalent portions of fetal thymus, heart, and lung tissue was collected, frozen at - 20 °C, and re-analyzed when a certain amount of either PRRSV-1 RNA or PCV2 DNA was detected in individual reference organs. Thirteen pluck-pools were assessed for PRRSV-1, all being PCR-positive. For PCV2, 11 of 15 pluck-pools investigated were PCR-positive. In all pluck-pools testing negative, viral loads in individual pools were low. This study indicates that pluck-pools can be valuable diagnostic material and the consolidation of multiple organs through a single RNA/DNA extraction optimizes the utilization of available laboratory resources. Additional research is required to assess the feasibility of follow-up investigations and to accurately define criteria for interpretation of viral loads in a clinical context.

Infection characteristics of porcine circovirus type 2 in different herds from intensive farms in China, 2022

Introduction

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the primary etiological agent of porcine circovirus diseases (PCVD), which are widespread in most pig herds, causing huge economic losses in the global pig industry. Therefore, it is critical to assess the infection characteristics of PCV2 in different swine herds to develop effective strategies against PCVD.

Methods

In this study, routine diagnostic and monitoring protocols were used to collect 12,714 samples from intensive farms in China, and PCV2 was tested for by qPCR to determine positivity rates and viral loads in samples from different herds and materials.

Results

PCV2 was found to be prevalent throughout China, and fattening farms had higher positivity rates than breeding farms. The PCV2 positivity rates in breeding farms in Southern China were higher than those in Northern China. Growing-finishing pigs demonstrated the highest positivity rate in the tested samples, while pre-weaning piglets and adult sows had the lowest. Meanwhile, samples with viral loads exceeding 106 copies/mL in growing-finishing pigs had 27.2% positivity, compared to 1.9% and 3.3% in sows and piglets, respectively. The results of the viral loads in the serum samples followed a similar trend.

Discussion

The findings reveal that PCV2 circulates in different herds from intensive farms, with positivity increasing from pre-weaning to growing-finishing herds. It is urgent to develop effective strategies to reduce PCV2 positivity in growing-finishing herds and prevent viral circulation among pigs.

Evaluation of porcine circovirus type 2 double vaccination in weaning piglets that reared for gilts under field conditions

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy of a porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) double vaccination in weaning piglets reared for gilts under field conditions. The study was conducted at a Greek farrow-to-finish conventional pig farm with a previous history of PCV2 infections. The trial included 96 female piglets at 21 days of age, which were equally allocated to two different study groups. Piglets of the group-1 received a single PCV2 vaccination at 21 days of age, while piglets of the group-2 were double vaccinated against PCV2, at 21 and 42 days of age. The results indicated that the piglets of group-2 had better growth performance, as they showed higher body weight (BW) and average daily weight gain (ADWG). In addition, ELISA tests showed that the double- vaccinated piglets presented a better humoral response against PCV2, as higher levels of IgG antibodies were detected in them than the piglets of the group-1. In conclusion, the current results suggested that a double PCV2 vaccination of piglets, reared for gilts, on a PCV2-affected farm could lead to higher protection against the virus.

Live attenuated Salmonella enterica serovar Choleraesuis vector delivering a virus-like particles induces a protective immune response against porcine circovirus type 2 in mice

The virus-like particles (VLPs) of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is an attractive vaccine candidate that retains the natural conformation of the virion but lacks the viral genome to replicate, thus balancing safety and immunogenicity. However, the assembly of VLPs requires cumbersome subsequent processes, hindering the development of related vaccines. In addition, as a subunit antigen, VLPs are defective in inducing cellular and mucosal immune responses. In this study, the capsid (Cap) protein of PCV2 was synthesized and self-assembled into VLPs in the recombinant attenuated S. Choleraesuis vector, rSC0016(pS-Cap). Furthermore, rSC0016(pS-Cap) induced a Cap-specific Th1-dominant immune response, mucosal immune responses, and neutralizing antibodies against PCV2. Finally, the virus genome copies in mice immunized with the rSC0016(pS-Cap) were significantly lower than those of the empty vector control group after challenge with PCV2. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the potential of using S. Choleraesuis vectors to delivery VLPs, providing new ideas for the development of PCV2 vaccines.

Swine Influenza Virus Infection Decreases the Protective Immune Responses of Subunit Vaccine Against Porcine Circovirus Type 2

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the primary pathogen of porcine circovirus diseases and porcine circovirus associated diseases. Immunization with a vaccine is considered an effective measure to control these diseases. However, it is still unknown whether PCV2 vaccines have protective immune responses on the animals infected with swine influenza virus (SIV), a pandemic virus in swine herds. In this study, we first compared the effects of 2 different PCV2 vaccines on normal mice and SIV-infected mice, respectively. The results showed that these two vaccines had protective immune responses in normal mice, and the subunit vaccine (vaccine S) had better effects. However, the inactivated vaccine (vaccine I) instead of vaccine S exhibited more immune responses in the SIV-infected mice. SIV infection significantly decreased the immune responses of vaccine S in varying aspects including decreased PCV2 antibody levels and increased PCV2 replication. Mechanistically, further studies showed that SIV infection increased IL-10 expression and M2 macrophage percentage, but decreased TNF-α expression and M1 macrophage percentage in the mice immunized with vaccine S; on the contrary, macrophage depleting by using clodronate-containing liposomes significantly alleviated the SIV infection-induced decrease in the protective immune responses of vaccine S against PCV2. This study indicates that SIV infection decreases the protective immune responses of vaccine S against PCV2. The macrophage polarization induced by SIV infection might facilitate decreased immune responses to vaccine S, which provides new insight into vaccine evaluation and a reference for the analysis of immunization failure.

The first isolation of porcine circovirus type 2e from a Korean pig

This study describes the first isolation and genetic characterization of the newly emerging porcine circovirus type 2e (PCV2e) from Korean pigs. The PCV2e isolate did not produce a cytopathic effect in PCV-free PK-15 cells; therefore, PCV2e infection was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry with polyclonal PCV2a antibodies and polymerase chain reaction with primers specific for PCV2e. As the infected PCV-free PK-15 cells were passaged, the amount of infectious virus correlated with an increase in the amount of viral DNA (i.e., a decrease in the cycle threshold values. A full genomic analysis of the PCV2e strain SNUVR199711 was performed and showed that the genome is 1,777 nucleotides in length.

Targeted Alteration of Antibody-Based Immunodominance Enhances the Heterosubtypic Immunity of an Experimental PCV2 Vaccine

Despite the availability of commercial vaccines which can effectively prevent clinical signs, porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) continues to remain an economically important swine virus, as strain drift, followed by displacement of new subtypes, occurs periodically. We had previously determined that the early antibody responses to the PCV2 capsid protein in infected pigs map to immunodominant but non-protective, linear B cell epitopes. In this study, two of the previously identified immunodominant epitopes were mutated in the backbone of a PCV2b infectious clone, to rationally restructure the immunogenic capsid protein. The rescued virus was used to immunize 3-week-old weanling piglets, followed by challenge with a virulent heterologous PCV2d strain. As expected, immunodominant antibody responses to the targeted epitopes were abrogated in vaccinated pigs, while a broadening of the virus neutralization responses was detected. Vaccinated pigs were completely protected against challenge viral replication, had reduced microscopic lesions in lymphoid organs and gained significantly more body weight when compared to unvaccinated pigs. Thus, the experimental PCV2 vaccine developed was highly effective against challenge, and, if adopted commercially, can potentially slow down or eliminate new strain creation.

Comparative study of the virulence of 3 major Korean porcine circovirus type 2 genotypes (a, b, and d)

The objective of this study was to compare the virulence of 3 major Korean porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) genotypes in terms of clinical signs, PCV2 viremia and antibody titers, lymphoid lesions, and PCV2-antigen within lymphoid lesions in experimentally infected pigs. Pigs were infected at 7 weeks with PCV2a, PCV2b, and PCV2d strains and necropsied at 28 days post-infection. No statistical differences were observed in clinical signs, PCV2 viremia and antibody titers, lymphoid lesions scores, and numbers of PCV2 antigens among the 3 major Korean PCV2 genotypes. The results of this study indicate that the 3 major Korean PCV2 genotypes, PCV2a, PCV2b, and PCV2d, have similar virulence.

Genetic analysis of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) in Queensland, Australia

OBJECTIVE

To determine the current porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) genotypes circulating in pigs in Queensland (QLD).

METHODS

The PCV2 infection status of pigs was determined by real-time PCR testing of 210 lymph nodes and 30 serum samples derived from 45 QLD farms. PCV2-positive samples from 22 pigs from 15 farms were subjected to conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing of the full PCV2 genome. Phylogenetic analysis of 17 of these sequences in relation to published PCV2 sequences was then performed, and the genotypes were compared.

RESULTS

PCV2 DNA was detected in 95 lymph nodes and 15 serum samples. Phylogenetic analysis of 17 PCV2 sequences demonstrated that seven belonged to genotype PCV2b, two to PCV2d, one to PCV2f and seven to an "intermediate group" that clustered with PCV2d on the full genome analysis.

CONCLUSION

This work confirms earlier studies reporting the presence of PCV2b in Australia. It is the first study to report that PCV2d and PCV2f are also present in this country. PCV2d is currently a fast-spreading genotype globally, with reported high virulence. The potential implications of these findings with respect to pathogenicity and vaccine efficacy require further investigation.

Evaluation of the efficacy of a trivalent vaccine mixture against a triple challenge with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, PCV2, and PRRSV and the efficacy comparison of the respective monovalent vaccines against a single challenge

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of a trivalent vaccine mixture and compare it to the respective monovalent vaccines against Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV).

RESULTS

Pigs that were triple challenged with M. hyopneumoniae, PCV2, and PRRSV following vaccination with the trivalent vaccine mixture exhibited a significantly better growth performance when compared to unvaccinated and challenged pigs. A statistical difference was not found when comparing pig populations which were vaccinated with the trivalent vaccine followed by a triple challenge and pigs vaccinated with monovalent M hyopneumoniae vaccine followed by mycoplasmal single challenge in the following areas: M. hyopneumoniae nasal shedding, the number of M. hyopneumoniae-specific interferon-γ secreting cells (IFN-γ-SC), and mycoplasmal lung lesion scores. Pigs vaccinated with the trivalent vaccine mixture followed by a triple challenge resulted in a similar reduction of PCV2 viremia, an increase in the number of PCV2-specific IFN-γ-SC and reduction in interstitial lung lesion scores when compared to pigs vaccinated with a PCV-2 vaccine and challenged with PCV2 only. Lastly, there was a significant difference in the reduction of PRRSV viremia, an increase in PRRSV-specific IFN-γ-SC and a reduction of interstitial lung lesion scores between pigs vaccinated with the trivalent vaccine mixture followed by a triple challenge and pigs vaccinated with a monovalent PRRSV vaccine followed by PRRSV challenge only.

CONCLUSION

The trivalent vaccine mixture was efficacious against a triple challenge of M. hyopneumoniae, PCV2, and PRRSV. The trivalent vaccine mixture, however, did not result in equal protection when compared against each respective monovalent vaccine, with the largest vaccine occurring within PRRSV.

Protective humoral immunity in guinea pigs induced by PCV2 virus-like particles displaying the B cell linear epitope (228QQITDA233) of PPV1

Although PCV2 infections generally cause mild disease in pigs, concurrent co-infections with other pathogens can damage the immune system and cause more severe diseases, collectively termed porcine circovirus associated diseases (PCVAD). Involvement of porcine parvovirus (PPV, a common cause of reproductive failure in naïve dams) in PCVAD caused by PCV2, has been reported. As this co-infection can be difficult to eliminate, there is a critical need to develop an effective vaccine to protect against PPV or synergistic effects of PCV2 and PPV under field conditions. In this study, we designed chimeric PCV2 virus-like particles (cVLPs) displaying a B-cell epitope derived from PPV1 structural protein around the surface of the 2-fold axes of PCV2 VLPs, based on 3D-structure analysis of the PCV2 capsid. The cVLPs were successfully prepared, verified by transmission electron microscopy and chromatography, with robust antibody titers against PCV2 and PPV1 produced in mice and guinea pigs. In addition, in guinea pigs challenged with 10⁶ TCID₅₀ PCV2, cVLPs conferred more effective immune protection (based on viral load) than a commercial PCV2 vaccine. Finally, antibody responses and immune protection against PPV were also evaluated. In guinea pigs vaccinated with cVLPs, although PPV antibodies detected by a hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay appeared later after vaccination in the PCV2 cVLPs group than in the commercial PPV vaccine group, there were fewer PPV genomic DNA copies in the PCV2 cVLPs group than in a PBS group. In conclusion, guinea pigs vaccinated with cVLPs developed effective protective immunity against PCV2 challenge, with some protective immunity against PPV. This study provided valuable research data to pursue molecular design of chimeric epitopes PCV2 VLPs.

Porcine circovirus type 2 associated reproductive failure in a specific pathogen free (SPF) piglet producing herd in Norway: a case report

BACKGROUND

Since 1999, scientists have published evidence of transplacental infection by porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) and reproductive failure in pigs. Affected herds have frequently been start-up herds, either naïve or with a high proportion of PCV2 susceptible gilts. Here, delayed farrowing in non-vaccinated gilts was observed in a commercial specific pathogen free (SPF) herd. Mummified fetuses and stillborn piglets recovered from these gilts were PCV2 positive.

CASE PRESENTATION

The case herd was a self-recruiting, piglet producing unit of 240 sows. After detecting livestock associated methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (LA-MRSA, CC398), stamping out was imposed by the authorities. An SPF herd was re-established and all dams were vaccinated against PCV2 until the farmer decided to exclude this vaccine. The first non-vaccinated batch consisted of 76% gilts. Here, one gilt showed signs of impending farrowing. This gilt was slaughtered three to four weeks after the expected farrowing date without having expelled any uterine contents. In the subsequent batch consisting of 79% gilts, three gilts showed similar clinical signs. Delayed farrowing was observed in two of these gilts and the uterine contents from the third gilt were recovered at the abattoir. Mummified fetuses and stillborn piglets were recovered from all three gilts. High levels of PCV2 DNA (>10⁷ viral genomic copies/ 500 ng tissue) were found in myocardial samples by real-time PCR analysis. One myocardial sample submitted for immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis showed moderate amounts of PCV2 antigen. In the subsequent batch consisting of 77% gilts, several weak-born piglets were seen across different litters.

CONCLUSIONS

This case report describes an apparent link between in utero PCV2 infection, pre partum nest-building behaviour, mammary development and delayed farrowing. To date, no reports have described imminent signs of farrowing and delayed farrowing as clinical signs in conjunction with transplacental PCV2 infection in Norway. Reinitiation of PCV2 vaccination was strongly advised in this herd due to recent depopulation and repopulation and the high proportion of gilts. Vaccination was effective because no further cases have occurred since.

Evaluation of natural porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) subclinical infection and seroconversion dynamics in piglets vaccinated at different ages

This study aimed to determine the porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) serological and virological dynamics in piglets vaccinated at different ages in a PCV2 subclinical infection (PCV2-SI) scenario. Six hundred and forty-four 2 week-old healthy piglets were selected and distributed into four treatment groups: vaccination at 3, 6 or 10 weeks of age (3W-VAC, 6W-VAC and 10W-VAC groups, respectively) and unvaccinated pigs (NON-VAC group). Blood (n = 112 pigs) and oral fluid (OF) (n = 40 pens) samples were taken throughout the study to assess PCV2 load, humoral immunity and viral genotyping. Percentage of PCV2-DNA positive sera mainly raised by 10 weeks of age, being maximum at 14 weeks of age, and then started to decrease at 18 and 25 weeks of age. Specifically, PCV2 vaccination at 3 or 6 weeks of age yielded similar results, since they produced an earlier seroconversion and reduced, at different sampling points, the proportion of viremic animals in comparison to the unvaccinated group. In contrast, PCV2 vaccination at 10 weeks of age only achieved such reduction at 25 weeks of age; in this case, vaccination coincided with the increase of the percentage of viremic pigs in the population. Both serological techniques used in sera and OF offered similar results with a high and statistically significant correlation. In contrast, a higher percentage of PCV2 DNA positivity was detected in OF in comparison with sera. In conclusion, under the present study conditions, the optimal time for PCV2 piglet vaccination was at either 3 or 6 weeks of age.

A commercial PCV2a-based vaccine significantly reduces PCV2b transmission in experimental conditions

Transmission characteristics of PCV2 have been compared between vaccinated and non-vaccinated pigs in experimental conditions. Twenty-four Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) piglets, vaccinated against PCV2 at 3weeks of age (PCV2a recombinant CAP protein-based vaccine), were inoculated at 15days post-vaccination with a PCV2b inoculum (6⋅10(5) TCID50), and put in contact with 24 vaccinated SPF piglets during 42days post-inoculation. Those piglets were shared in six replicates of a contact trial involving 4 inoculated piglets mingled with 4 susceptible SPF piglets. Two replicates of a similar contact trial were made with non-vaccinated pigs. Non vaccinated animals received a placebo at vaccination time and were inoculated the same way and at the same time as the vaccinated group. All the animals were monitored twice weekly using quantitative real-time PCR and ELISA for serology until 42days post-inoculation. The frequency of infection and the PCV2 genome load in sera of the vaccinated pigs were significantly reduced compared to the non-vaccinated animals. The duration of infectiousness was significantly different between vaccinated and non-vaccinated groups (16.6days [14.7;18.4] and 26.6days [22.9;30.4] respectively). The transmission rate was also considerably decreased in vaccinated pigs (β=0.09 [0.05-0.14] compared to β=0.19 [0.11-0.32] in non-vaccinated pigs). This led to an estimated reproduction ratio of 1.5 [95% CI 0.8 - 2.2] in vaccinated animals versus 5.1 [95% CI 2.5 - 8.2] in non-vaccinated pigs when merging data of this experiment with previous trials carried out in same conditions.

Assessing PCV2 antibodies in field pigs vaccinated with different porcine circovirus 2 vaccines using two commercial ELISA systems

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) is the primary causative agent for post-weaning, multisystemic, wasting syndrome. Consequently, serologic detection of and vaccination against PCV2 are important for the swine industry. Among several serological tests, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is commonly used to measure anti-PCV2 antibody levels. In the present study, we used two commercial ELISA systems to comparatively evaluate anti-PCV2 antibodies in field pigs treated with three different PCV2 vaccines. Among a total of 517 serum samples, the results of the two ELISAs were fully concordant for 365 positive and 42 negative samples, indicating 78.7% agreement. In addition, the Pearson coefficient (0.636) indicated a moderate correlation between data from the two ELISAs. Results from the farms with pigs vaccinated with the three different PCV2 vaccines demonstrated that most of the vaccinated animals underwent seroconversion. However, the increase and duration of antibody titers varied depending on the vaccine, the presence of maternal antibodies, and the vaccination program. PCV2 serologic status and anti-PCV2 antibody levels of herds from this study could be utilized to determine the best timing for vaccination and assessing vaccination compliance.