1
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Dashevsky D, Harris RJ, Zdenek CN, Benard-Valle M, Alagón A, Portes-Junior JA, Tanaka-Azevedo AM, Grego KF, Sant'Anna SS, Frank N, Fry BG. Red-on-Yellow Queen: Bio-Layer Interferometry Reveals Functional Diversity Within Micrurus Venoms and Toxin Resistance in Prey Species. J Mol Evol 2024; 92:317-328. [PMID: 38814340 PMCID: PMC11168994 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-024-10176-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Snakes in the family Elapidae largely produce venoms rich in three-finger toxins (3FTx) that bind to the α 1 subunit of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), impeding ion channel activity. These neurotoxins immobilize the prey by disrupting muscle contraction. Coral snakes of the genus Micrurus are specialist predators who produce many 3FTx, making them an interesting system for examining the coevolution of these toxins and their targets in prey animals. We used a bio-layer interferometry technique to measure the binding interaction between 15 Micrurus venoms and 12 taxon-specific mimotopes designed to resemble the orthosteric binding region of the muscular nAChR subunit. We found that Micrurus venoms vary greatly in their potency on this assay and that this variation follows phylogenetic patterns rather than previously reported patterns of venom composition. The long-tailed Micrurus tend to have greater binding to nAChR orthosteric sites than their short-tailed relatives and we conclude this is the likely ancestral state. The repeated loss of this activity may be due to the evolution of 3FTx that bind to other regions of the nAChR. We also observed variations in the potency of the venoms depending on the taxon of the target mimotope. Rather than a pattern of prey-specificity, we found that mimotopes modeled after snake nAChRs are less susceptible to Micrurus venoms and that this resistance is partly due to a characteristic tryptophan → serine mutation within the orthosteric site in all snake mimotopes. This resistance may be part of a Red Queen arms race between coral snakes and their prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dashevsky
- Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.
| | - Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Cape Cleveland, QLD, 4810, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Celine Frere Group, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Melisa Benard-Valle
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Region Hovedstaden, Denmark
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 62210, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - José A Portes-Junior
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Anita M Tanaka-Azevedo
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Kathleen F Grego
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Sávio S Sant'Anna
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Nathaniel Frank
- MToxins Venom Lab, 717 Oregon Street, Oshkosh, WI, 54902, USA
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
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2
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Benard-Valle M, Wouters Y, Ljungars A, Nguyen GTT, Ahmadi S, Ebersole TW, Dahl CH, Guadarrama-Martínez A, Jeppesen F, Eriksen H, Rodríguez-Barrera G, Boddum K, Jenkins TP, Bjørn SP, Schoffelen S, Voldborg BG, Alagón A, Laustsen AH. In vivo neutralization of coral snake venoms with an oligoclonal nanobody mixture in a murine challenge model. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4310. [PMID: 38773068 PMCID: PMC11109316 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48539-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Oligoclonal mixtures of broadly-neutralizing antibodies can neutralize complex compositions of similar and dissimilar antigens, making them versatile tools for the treatment of e.g., infectious diseases and animal envenomations. However, these biotherapeutics are complicated to develop due to their complex nature. In this work, we describe the application of various strategies for the discovery of cross-neutralizing nanobodies against key toxins in coral snake venoms using phage display technology. We prepare two oligoclonal mixtures of nanobodies and demonstrate their ability to neutralize the lethality induced by two North American coral snake venoms in mice, while individual nanobodies fail to do so. We thus show that an oligoclonal mixture of nanobodies can neutralize the lethality of venoms where the clinical syndrome is caused by more than one toxin family in a murine challenge model. The approaches described may find utility for the development of advanced biotherapeutics against snakebite envenomation and other pathologies where multi-epitope targeting is beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melisa Benard-Valle
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Yessica Wouters
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Anne Ljungars
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Giang Thi Tuyet Nguyen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Shirin Ahmadi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Tasja Wainani Ebersole
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Camilla Holst Dahl
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alid Guadarrama-Martínez
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Mor, 62210, México
| | - Frederikke Jeppesen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Helena Eriksen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Gibran Rodríguez-Barrera
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Mor, 62210, México
| | - Kim Boddum
- Sophion Bioscience, DK-2750, Ballerup, Denmark
| | - Timothy Patrick Jenkins
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Sara Petersen Bjørn
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Sanne Schoffelen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Bjørn Gunnar Voldborg
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Mor, 62210, México
| | - Andreas Hougaard Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark.
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3
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Saldarriaga-Córdoba M, Clavero-León C, Rey-Suarez P, Nuñez-Rangel V, Avendaño-Herrera R, Solano-González S, Alzate JF. Unveiling Novel Kunitz- and Waprin-Type Toxins in the Micrurus mipartitus Coral Snake Venom Gland: An In Silico Transcriptome Analysis. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:224. [PMID: 38787076 PMCID: PMC11126030 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16050224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Kunitz-type peptide expression has been described in the venom of snakes of the Viperidae, Elapidae and Colubridae families. This work aimed to identify these peptides in the venom gland transcriptome of the coral snake Micrurus mipartitus. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a high diversity of venom-associated Kunitz serine protease inhibitor proteins (KSPIs). A total of eight copies of KSPIs were predicted and grouped into four distinctive types, including short KSPI, long KSPI, Kunitz-Waprin (Ku-WAP) proteins, and a multi-domain Kunitz-type protein. From these, one short KSPI showed high identity with Micrurus tener and Austrelaps superbus. The long KSPI group exhibited similarity within the Micrurus genus and showed homology with various elapid snakes and even with the colubrid Pantherophis guttatus. A third group suggested the presence of Kunitz domains in addition to a whey-acidic-protein-type four-disulfide core domain. Finally, the fourth group corresponded to a transcript copy with a putative 511 amino acid protein, formerly annotated as KSPI, which UniProt classified as SPINT1. In conclusion, this study showed the diversity of Kunitz-type proteins expressed in the venom gland transcriptome of M. mipartitus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Claudia Clavero-León
- Centro de Investigación en Recursos Naturales y Sustentabilidad (CIRENYS), Universidad Bernardo O’Higgins, Santiago 8320000, Chile
| | - Paola Rey-Suarez
- Grupo de Investigación en Toxinología, Alternativas Terapéuticas y Alimentarias, Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y Alimentarias, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 50010, Colombia; (P.R.-S.); (V.N.-R.)
| | - Vitelbina Nuñez-Rangel
- Grupo de Investigación en Toxinología, Alternativas Terapéuticas y Alimentarias, Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y Alimentarias, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 50010, Colombia; (P.R.-S.); (V.N.-R.)
- Escuela de Microbiología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 50010, Colombia
| | - Ruben Avendaño-Herrera
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida & Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar 2531015, Chile;
| | - Stefany Solano-González
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional, Heredia 86-3000, Costa Rica
| | - Juan F. Alzate
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 50010, Colombia;
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4
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Oliveira LD, Nachtigall PG, Vialla VL, Campos PF, Costa-Neves AD, Zaher H, Silva NJD, Grazziotin FG, Wilkinson M, Junqueira-de-Azevedo ILM. Comparing morphological and secretory aspects of cephalic glands among the New World coral snakes brings novel insights on their biological roles. Toxicon 2023; 234:107285. [PMID: 37683698 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Oral and other cephalic glands have been surveyed by several studies with distinct purposes. Despite the wide diversity and medical relevance of the New World coral snakes, studies focusing on understanding the biological roles of the glands within this group are still scarce. Specifically, the venom glands of some coral snakes were previously investigated but all other cephalic glands remain uncharacterized. In this sense, performing morphological and molecular analysis of these glands may help better understand their biological role. Here, we studied the morphology of the venom, infralabial, rictal, and harderian glands of thirteen species of Micrurus and Micruroides euryxanthus. We also performed a molecular characterization of these glands from selected species of Micrurus using transcriptomic and proteomic approaches. We described substantial morphological variation in the cephalic glands of New World coral snakes and structural evidence for protein-secreting cells in the inferior rictal glands. Our molecular analysis revealed that the venom glands, as expected, are majorly devoted to toxin production, however, the infralabial and inferior rictal glands also expressed some toxin genes at low to medium levels, despite the marked morphological differences. On the other hand, the harderian glands were dominated by the expression of lipocalins, but do not produce toxins. Our integrative analysis, including the prediction of biological processes and pathways, helped decipher some important traits of cephalic glands and better understand their biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Toxinologia Aplicada, Centre of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil; Herpetology, The Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, United Kingdom.
| | - Pedro Gabriel Nachtigall
- Laboratório de Toxinologia Aplicada, Centre of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Vincent Louis Vialla
- Laboratório de Toxinologia Aplicada, Centre of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Pollyanna F Campos
- Laboratório de Toxinologia Aplicada, Centre of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | | | - Hussam Zaher
- Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Nazaré 481, Ipiranga, 04263-000, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nelson Jorge da Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Ambientais e Saúde, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás, 74605-140, Brazil
| | - Felipe G Grazziotin
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Mark Wilkinson
- Herpetology, The Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, United Kingdom
| | - Inácio L M Junqueira-de-Azevedo
- Laboratório de Toxinologia Aplicada, Centre of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
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5
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Hiremath K, Dodakallanavar J, Sampat GH, Patil VS, Harish DR, Chavan R, Hegde HV, Roy S. Three finger toxins of elapids: structure, function, clinical applications and its inhibitors. Mol Divers 2023:10.1007/s11030-023-10734-3. [PMID: 37749455 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-023-10734-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
The WHO lists snakebite as a "neglected tropical disease". In tropical and subtropical areas, envenoming is an important public health issue. This review article describes the structure, function, chemical composition, natural inhibitors, and clinical applications of Elapids' Three Finger Toxins (3FTX) using scientific research data. The primary venomous substance belonging to Elapidae is 3FTX, that targets nAChR. Three parallel β-sheets combine to create 3FTX, which has four or five disulfide bonds. The three primary types of 3FTX are short-chain, long-chain, and nonconventional 3FTX. The functions of 3FTX depend on the specific toxin subtype and the target receptor or ion channel. The well-known effect of 3FTX is probably neurotoxicity because of the severe consequences of muscular paralysis and respiratory failure in snakebite victims. 3FTX have also been studied for their potential clinical applications. α-bungarotoxin has been used as a molecular probe to study the structure and function of nAChRs (Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors). Acid-sensing ion channel (ASIC) isoforms 1a and 1b are inhibited by Mambalgins, derived from Black mamba venom, which hinders their function and provide an analgesic effect. α- Cobra toxin is a neurotoxin purified from Chinese cobra (Naja atra) binds to nAChR at the neuronal junction and causes an analgesic effect for moderate to severe pain. Some of the plants and their compounds have been shown to inhibit the activity of 3FTX, and their mechanisms of action are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kashinath Hiremath
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Jagadeesh Dodakallanavar
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Ganesh H Sampat
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Vishal S Patil
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Darasaguppe R Harish
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India.
| | - Rajashekar Chavan
- KLE College of Pharmacy, Belagavi, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India.
| | - Harsha V Hegde
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
| | - Subarna Roy
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Belagavi, Karnataka, 590010, India
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6
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Srodawa K, Cerda PA, Davis Rabosky AR, Crowe-Riddell JM. Evolution of Three-Finger Toxin Genes in Neotropical Colubrine Snakes (Colubridae). Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:523. [PMID: 37755949 PMCID: PMC10534312 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venom research has historically focused on front-fanged species (Viperidae and Elapidae), limiting our knowledge of venom evolution in rear-fanged snakes across their ecologically diverse phylogeny. Three-finger toxins (3FTxs) are a known neurotoxic component in the venoms of some rear-fanged snakes (Colubridae: Colubrinae), but it is unclear how prevalent 3FTxs are both in expression within venom glands and more broadly among colubrine species. Here, we used a transcriptomic approach to characterize the venom expression profiles of four species of colubrine snakes from the Neotropics that were dominated by 3FTx expression (in the genera Chironius, Oxybelis, Rhinobothryum, and Spilotes). By reconstructing the gene trees of 3FTxs, we found evidence of putative novel heterodimers in the sequences of Chironius multiventris and Oxybelis aeneus, revealing an instance of parallel evolution of this structural change in 3FTxs among rear-fanged colubrine snakes. We also found positive selection at sites within structural loops or "fingers" of 3FTxs, indicating these areas may be key binding sites that interact with prey target molecules. Overall, our results highlight the importance of exploring the venoms of understudied species in reconstructing the full evolutionary history of toxins across the tree of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy Srodawa
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (K.S.); (A.R.D.R.); (J.M.C.-R.)
- Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Peter A. Cerda
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (K.S.); (A.R.D.R.); (J.M.C.-R.)
- Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA
| | - Alison R. Davis Rabosky
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (K.S.); (A.R.D.R.); (J.M.C.-R.)
- Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA
| | - Jenna M. Crowe-Riddell
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; (K.S.); (A.R.D.R.); (J.M.C.-R.)
- Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA
- School of Agriculture, Biomedicine and Environment, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
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7
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Corrêa-Netto C, Strauch MA, Monteiro-Machado M, Teixeira-Araújo R, Fonseca JG, Leitão-Araújo M, Machado-Alves ML, Sanz L, Calvete JJ, Melo PA, Zingali RB. Monoclonal-Based Antivenomics Reveals Conserved Neutralizing Epitopes in Type I PLA 2 Molecules from Coral Snakes. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 15:toxins15010015. [PMID: 36668835 PMCID: PMC9863321 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
For over a century, polyclonal antibodies have been used to treat snakebite envenoming and are still considered by the WHO as the only scientifically validated treatment for snakebites. Nevertheless, moderate innovations have been introduced to this immunotherapy. New strategies and approaches to understanding how antibodies recognize and neutralize snake toxins represent a challenge for next-generation antivenoms. The neurotoxic activity of Micrurus venom is mainly due to two distinct protein families, three-finger toxins (3FTx) and phospholipases A2 (PLA2). Structural conservation among protein family members may represent an opportunity to generate neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against family-conserved epitopes. In this work, we sought to produce a set of monoclonal antibodies against the most toxic components of M. altirostris venom. To this end, the crude venom was fractionated, and its major toxic proteins were identified and used to generate a panel of five mAbs. The specificity of these mAbs was characterized by ELISA and antivenomics approaches. Two of the generated mAbs recognized PLA2 epitopes. They inhibited PLA2 catalytic activity and showed paraspecific neutralization against the myotoxicity from the lethal effect of Micrurus and Naja venoms' PLA2s. Epitope conservation among venom PLA2 molecules suggests the possibility of generating pan-PLA2 neutralizing antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Corrêa-Netto
- Instituto Vital Brazil, Rio de Janeiro 24230-410, RJ, Brazil
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Instituto Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
- Correspondence: (C.C.-N.); (R.B.Z.); Tel.: +55-213-938-6782 (R.B.Z.)
| | - Marcelo A. Strauch
- Instituto Vital Brazil, Rio de Janeiro 24230-410, RJ, Brazil
- Programa de Farmacologia e Química Medicinal-UFRJ, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcos Monteiro-Machado
- Programa de Farmacologia e Química Medicinal-UFRJ, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Teixeira-Araújo
- Instituto Vital Brazil, Rio de Janeiro 24230-410, RJ, Brazil
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Instituto Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Moema Leitão-Araújo
- Fundação Zoobotânica do Rio Grande do Sul, Museu de Ciências Naturais, Núcleo Regional de Ofiologia de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre 90690-000, RS, Brazil
| | - Maria Lúcia Machado-Alves
- Fundação Zoobotânica do Rio Grande do Sul, Museu de Ciências Naturais, Núcleo Regional de Ofiologia de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre 90690-000, RS, Brazil
| | - Libia Sanz
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - Juan J. Calvete
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - Paulo A. Melo
- Programa de Farmacologia e Química Medicinal-UFRJ, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Av. Carlos Chagas Filho, 373, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
| | - Russolina Benedeta Zingali
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Instituto Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil
- Correspondence: (C.C.-N.); (R.B.Z.); Tel.: +55-213-938-6782 (R.B.Z.)
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8
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Hernández-Altamirano JA, Salazar-Valenzuela D, Medina-Villamizar EJ, Quirola DR, Patel K, Vaiyapuri S, Lomonte B, Almeida JR. First Insights into the Venom Composition of Two Ecuadorian Coral Snakes. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232314686. [PMID: 36499012 PMCID: PMC9740791 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Micrurus is a medically relevant genus of venomous snakes composed of 85 species. Bites caused by coral snakes are rare, but they are usually associated with very severe and life-threatening clinical manifestations. Ecuador is a highly biodiverse country with a complex natural environment, which is home to approximately 20% of identified Micrurus species. Additionally, it is on the list of Latin American countries with the highest number of snakebites. However, there is no local antivenom available against the Ecuadorian snake venoms, and the biochemistry of these venoms has been poorly explored. Only a limited number of samples collected in the country from the Viperidae family were recently characterised. Therefore, this study addressed the compositional patterns of two coral snake venoms from Ecuador, M. helleri and M. mipartitus, using venomics strategies, integrating sample fractionation, gel electrophoresis, and mass spectrometry. Chromatographic and electrophoretic profiles of these snake venoms revealed interspecific variability, which was ascertained by mass spectrometry. The two venoms followed the recently recognised dichotomic toxin expression trends displayed by Micrurus species: M. helleri venom contains a high proportion (72%) of phospholipase A2, whereas M. mipartitus venom is dominated by three-finger toxins (63%). A few additional protein families were also detected in these venoms. Overall, these results provide the first comprehensive views on the composition of two Ecuadorian coral snake venoms and expand the knowledge of Micrurus venom phenotypes. These findings open novel perspectives to further research the functional aspects of these biological cocktails of PLA2s and 3FTxs and stress the need for the preclinical evaluation of the currently used antivenoms for therapeutic purposes in Ecuador.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David Salazar-Valenzuela
- Centro de Investigación de la Biodiversidad y Cambio Climático (BioCamb) e Ingeniería en Biodiversidad y Recursos Genéticos, Facultad de Ciencias de Medio Ambiente, Universidad Indoamérica, Quito 180103, Ecuador
| | | | - Diego R. Quirola
- Centro de Investigación de la Biodiversidad y Cambio Climático (BioCamb) e Ingeniería en Biodiversidad y Recursos Genéticos, Facultad de Ciencias de Medio Ambiente, Universidad Indoamérica, Quito 180103, Ecuador
| | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK
| | | | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jose 11501, Costa Rica
| | - José R. Almeida
- Biomolecules Discovery Group, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Km 8 Via Muyuna, Tena 150101, Ecuador
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK
- Correspondence:
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Bibliometric Analysis of Literature in Snake Venom-Related Research Worldwide (1933–2022). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12162058. [PMID: 36009648 PMCID: PMC9405337 DOI: 10.3390/ani12162058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Around the world, snake envenomation poses a serious health risk. Proteins with pharmacological effects are present in snake venom. Recent studies elaborate snake venom and its potential application, including as a cancer drug and antibacterial substances. Our study aimed to analyze the global profile of the literature in snake venom research from documents indexed in the Scopus database between 1933 and 2022. In total, 2999 documents were published with Brazil showing the highest productivity. Antivenom, proteomics, and transcriptomics are emerging as hot topics on a global scale. The present study offers a distinctive overview of snake venom research conducted worldwide. Abstract Snake envenomation is a severe economic and health concern affecting countries worldwide. Snake venom carries a wide variety of small peptides and proteins with various immunological and pharmacological properties. A few key research areas related to snake venom, including its applications in treating cancer and eradicating antibiotic-resistant bacteria, have been gaining significant attention in recent years. The goal of the current study was to analyze the global profile of literature in snake venom research. This study presents a bibliometric review of snake venom-related research documents indexed in the Scopus database between 1933 and 2022. The overall number of documents published on a global scale was 2999, with an average annual production of 34 documents. Brazil produced the highest number of documents (n = 729), followed by the United States (n = 548), Australia (n = 240), and Costa Rica (n = 235). Since 1963, the number of publications has been steadily increasing globally. At a worldwide level, antivenom, proteomics, and transcriptomics are growing hot issues for research in this field. The current research provides a unique overview of snake venom research at global level from 1933 through 2022, and it may be beneficial in guiding future research.
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10
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Divergent Specialization of Simple Venom Gene Profiles among Rear-Fanged Snake Genera ( Helicops and Leptodeira, Dipsadinae, Colubridae). Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14070489. [PMID: 35878227 PMCID: PMC9319703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14070489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Many venomous animals express toxins that show extraordinary levels of variation both within and among species. In snakes, most studies of venom variation focus on front-fanged species in the families Viperidae and Elapidae, even though rear-fanged snakes in other families vary along the same ecological axes important to venom evolution. Here we characterized venom gland transcriptomes from 19 snakes across two dipsadine rear-fanged genera (Leptodeira and Helicops, Colubridae) and two front-fanged genera (Bothrops, Viperidae; Micrurus, Elapidae). We compared patterns of composition, variation, and diversity in venom transcripts within and among all four genera. Venom gland transcriptomes of rear-fanged Helicops and Leptodeira and front-fanged Micrurus are each dominated by expression of single toxin families (C-type lectins, snake venom metalloproteinase, and phospholipase A2, respectively), unlike highly diverse front-fanged Bothrops venoms. In addition, expression patterns of congeners are much more similar to each other than they are to species from other genera. These results illustrate the repeatability of simple venom profiles in rear-fanged snakes and the potential for relatively constrained venom composition within genera.
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11
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Pharmacological Screening of Venoms from Five Brazilian Micrurus Species on Different Ion Channels. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147714. [PMID: 35887062 PMCID: PMC9318628 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Coral snake venoms from the Micrurus genus are a natural library of components with multiple targets, yet are poorly explored. In Brazil, 34 Micrurus species are currently described, and just a few have been investigated for their venom activities. Micrurus venoms are composed mainly of phospholipases A2 and three-finger toxins, which are responsible for neuromuscular blockade—the main envenomation outcome in humans. Beyond these two major toxin families, minor components are also important for the global venom activity, including Kunitz-peptides, serine proteases, 5′ nucleotidases, among others. In the present study, we used the two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique to explore the crude venom activities of five different Micrurus species from the south and southeast of Brazil: M. altirostris, M. corallinus, M. frontalis, M. carvalhoi and M. decoratus. All five venoms induced full inhibition of the muscle-type α1β1δε nAChR with different levels of reversibility. We found M. altirostris and M. frontalis venoms acting as partial inhibitors of the neuronal-type α7 nAChR with an interesting subsequent potentiation after one washout. We discovered that M. altirostris and M. corallinus venoms modulate the α1β2 GABAAR. Interestingly, the screening on KV1.3 showed that all five Micrurus venoms act as inhibitors, being totally reversible after the washout. Since this activity seems to be conserved among different species, we hypothesized that the Micrurus venoms may rely on potassium channel inhibitory activity as an important feature of their envenomation strategy. Finally, tests on NaV1.2 and NaV1.4 showed that these channels do not seem to be targeted by Micrurus venoms. In summary, the venoms tested are multifunctional, each of them acting on at least two different types of targets.
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12
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Adinortey MB. Botanical treatments for snakebite in rural Ghana: A narrative review. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 280:114432. [PMID: 34274442 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE In the countryside, there are some limitations with the use of venom antisera to manage snake bites. Due to poor access to healthcare and as a result of the difficulty in receiving treatment for cases of snake bites, most rural people in Ghana, a West African country, rely on plant medicine as a first aid to manage cases of venomous snakebite. This calls for more research into the species of plants used to medically manage snakebite envenomation. AIM OF THE STUDY This review sought to present plants that are used in managing snakebite cases and also gather data supporting their use. METHODOLOGY This is a systematic search and review of information obtained from textbooks and databases such as PubMed and ScienceDirect between January 1975 and August 2020. RESULTS A search done identified 43 plant species and these were found to belong to 25 taxonomic families with the most frequent ones being, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae, and Solanaceae. Experimental data gathered indicate that among the many plants identified to be used to manage snakebites, only 5 were found with anti-venom in vitro and in vivo evidence-based data. CONCLUSION Data collated hint that a few plant species identified namely Anacardium occidentale, Euphorbia hirta, Mimosa pudica, Musa paradisiaca and Mangifera indica, work by targeting diverse physiopathological and biochemical processes involved in the clinical manifestations of snakebites. This review has also unearthed knowledge gaps that can form the basis for broad investigations and development of these and other medicinal plants into useful anti-venom medications.
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13
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In vivo treatment with varespladib, a phospholipase A 2 inhibitor, prevents the peripheral neurotoxicity and systemic disorders induced by Micrurus corallinus (coral snake) venom in rats. Toxicol Lett 2021; 356:54-63. [PMID: 34774704 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2021.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the action of varespladib (VPL) alone or in combination with a coral snake antivenom (CAV) on the local and systemic effects induced by Micrurus corallinus venom in rats. Adult male Wistar rats were exposed to venom (1.5 mg/kg - i.m.) and immediately treated with CAV (antivenom:venom ratio 1:1.5 'v/w' - i.p.), VPL (0.5 mg/kg - i.p.), or both of these treatments. The animals were monitored for 120 min and then anesthetized to collect blood samples used for haematological and serum biochemical analysis; after euthanasia, skeletal muscle, renal and hepatic tissue samples were collected for histopathological analysis. M. corallinus venom caused local oedema without subcutaneous haemorrhage or apparent necrosis formation, although there was accentuated muscle morphological damage; none of the treatments prevented oedema formation but the combination of CAV and VPL reduced venom-induced myonecrosis. Venom caused neuromuscular paralysis and respiratory impairment in approximately 60 min following envenomation; CAV alone did not prevent the neurotoxic action, whereas VPL alone prevented neurotoxic symptoms developing as did the combination of CAV and VPL. Venom induced significant increase of serum CK and AST release, mostly due to local and systemic myotoxicity, which was partially prevented by the combination of CAV and VPL. The release of hepatotoxic serum biomarkers (LDH and ALP) induced by M. corallinus venom was not prevented by CAV and VPL when individually administered; their combination effectively prevented ALP release. The venom-induced nephrotoxicity (increase in serum creatinine concentration) was prevented by all the treatments. VPL alone or in combination with CAV significantly prevented the venom-induced lymphocytosis. In conclusion, VPL shows to be effective at preventing the neurotoxic, nephrotoxic, and inflammatory activities of M. corallinus venom. In addition, VPL acts synergistically with antivenom to prevent a number of systemic effects caused by M. corallinus venom.
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14
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Modahl CM, Saviola AJ, Mackessy SP. Integration of transcriptomic and proteomic approaches for snake venom profiling. Expert Rev Proteomics 2021; 18:827-834. [PMID: 34663159 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2021.1995357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Snake venoms contain many protein and peptide isoforms with high levels of sequence variation, even within a single species. AREAS COVERED In this review, we highlight several examples, from both published and unpublished work in our lab, demonstrating how a combined venom gland transcriptome and proteome methodology allows for comprehensive characterization of venoms, including those from understudied rear-fanged snake species, and we provide recommendations for using these approaches. EXPERT OPINION When characterizing venoms, peptide mass fingerprinting using databases built predominately from protein sequences originating from model organisms can be disadvantageous, especially when the intention is to document protein diversity. Therefore, the use of species-specific venom gland transcriptomes corrects for the absence of these unique peptide sequences in databases. The integration of transcriptomics and proteomics improves the accuracy of either approach alone for venom profiling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, USA
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15
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Palasuberniam P, Tan KY, Tan CH. De novo venom gland transcriptomics of Calliophis bivirgata flaviceps: uncovering the complexity of toxins from the Malayan blue coral snake. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2021; 27:e20210024. [PMID: 34616441 PMCID: PMC8476087 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2021-0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The Malayan blue coral snake, Calliophis bivirgata
flaviceps, is a medically important venomous snake in Southeast
Asia. However, the complexity and diversity of its venom genes remain little
explored. Methods: To address this, we applied high-throughput next-generation sequencing to
profile the venom gland cDNA libraries of C. bivirgata
flaviceps. The transcriptome was de novo
assembled, followed by gene annotation, multiple sequence alignment and
analyses of the transcripts. Results: A total of 74 non-redundant toxin-encoding genes from 16 protein families
were identified, with 31 full-length toxin transcripts. Three-finger toxins
(3FTx), primarily delta-neurotoxins and cardiotoxin-like/cytotoxin-like
proteins, were the most diverse and abundantly expressed. The major 3FTx
(Cb_FTX01 and Cb_FTX02) are highly similar to calliotoxin, a
delta-neurotoxin previously reported in the venom of C.
bivirgata. This study also revealed a conserved tyrosine
residue at position 4 of the cardiotoxin-like/cytotoxin-like protein genes
in the species. These variants, proposed as Y-type CTX-like proteins, are
similar to the H-type CTX from cobras. The substitution is conservative
though, preserving a less toxic form of elapid CTX-like protein, as
indicated by the lack of venom cytotoxicity in previous laboratory and
clinical findings. The ecological role of these toxins, however, remains
unclear. The study also uncovered unique transcripts that belong to
phospholipase A2 of Groups IA and IB, and snake venom
metalloproteinases of PIII subclass, which show sequence variations from
those of Asiatic elapids. Conclusion: The venom gland transcriptome of C. bivirgata flaviceps from
Malaysia was de novo assembled and annotated. The diversity
and expression profile of toxin genes provide insights into the biological
and medical importance of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praneetha Palasuberniam
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University Malaysia Sabah, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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16
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Wong KY, Tan KY, Tan NH, Gnanathasan CA, Tan CH. Elucidating the Venom Diversity in Sri Lankan Spectacled Cobra ( Naja naja) through De Novo Venom Gland Transcriptomics, Venom Proteomics and Toxicity Neutralization. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:558. [PMID: 34437429 PMCID: PMC8402536 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Inadequate effectiveness of Indian antivenoms in treating envenomation caused by the Spectacled Cobra/Indian Cobra (Naja naja) in Sri Lanka has been attributed to geographical variations in the venom composition. This study investigated the de novo venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics of the Sri Lankan N. naja (NN-SL) to elucidate its toxin gene diversity and venom variability. The neutralization efficacy of a commonly used Indian antivenom product in Sri Lanka was examined against the lethality induced by NN-SL venom in mice. The transcriptomic study revealed high expression of 22 toxin genes families in NN-SL, constituting 46.55% of total transcript abundance. Three-finger toxins (3FTX) were the most diversely and abundantly expressed (87.54% of toxin gene expression), consistent with the dominance of 3FTX in the venom proteome (72.19% of total venom proteins). The 3FTX were predominantly S-type cytotoxins/cardiotoxins (CTX) and α-neurotoxins of long-chain or short-chain subtypes (α-NTX). CTX and α-NTX are implicated in local tissue necrosis and fatal neuromuscular paralysis, respectively, in envenomation caused by NN-SL. Intra-species variations in the toxin gene sequences and expression levels were apparent between NN-SL and other geographical specimens of N. naja, suggesting potential antigenic diversity that impacts antivenom effectiveness. This was demonstrated by limited potency (0.74 mg venom/ml antivenom) of the Indian polyvalent antivenom (VPAV) in neutralizing the NN-SL venom. A pan-regional antivenom with improved efficacy to treat N. naja envenomation is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kin Ying Wong
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | | | - Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
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17
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Zhao HY, Sun Y, Du Y, Li JQ, Lv JG, Qu YF, Lin LH, Lin CX, Ji X, Gao JF. Venom of the Annulated Sea Snake Hydrophis cyanocinctus: A Biochemically Simple but Genetically Complex Weapon. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:548. [PMID: 34437419 PMCID: PMC8402435 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Given that the venom system in sea snakes has a role in enhancing their secondary adaption to the marine environment, it follows that elucidating the diversity and function of venom toxins will help to understand the adaptive radiation of sea snakes. We performed proteomic and de novo NGS analyses to explore the diversity of venom toxins in the annulated sea snake (Hydrophis cyanocinctus) and estimated the adaptive molecular evolution of the toxin-coding unigenes and the toxicity of the major components. We found three-finger toxins (3-FTxs), phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP) in the venom proteome and 59 toxin-coding unigenes belonging to 24 protein families in the venom-gland transcriptome; 3-FTx and PLA2 were the most abundant families. Nearly half of the toxin-coding unigenes had undergone positive selection. The short- (i.p. 0.09 μg/g) and long-chain neurotoxin (i.p. 0.14 μg/g) presented fairly high toxicity, whereas both basic and acidic PLA2s expressed low toxicity. The toxicity of H. cyanocinctus venom was largely determined by the 3-FTxs. Our data show the venom is used by H. cyanocinctus as a biochemically simple but genetically complex weapon and venom evolution in H. cyanocinctus is presumably driven by natural selection to deal with fast-moving prey and enemies in the marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Yan Zhao
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China; (H.-Y.Z.); (Y.S.); (L.-H.L.)
| | - Yan Sun
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China; (H.-Y.Z.); (Y.S.); (L.-H.L.)
| | - Yu Du
- Hainan Key Laboratory of Herpetological Research, College of Fisheries and Life Science, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572022, China; (Y.D.); (J.-G.L.)
- MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572022, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China; (J.-Q.L.); (Y.-F.Q.)
| | - Jia-Qi Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China; (J.-Q.L.); (Y.-F.Q.)
| | - Jin-Geng Lv
- Hainan Key Laboratory of Herpetological Research, College of Fisheries and Life Science, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572022, China; (Y.D.); (J.-G.L.)
- MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572022, China
| | - Yan-Fu Qu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China; (J.-Q.L.); (Y.-F.Q.)
| | - Long-Hui Lin
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China; (H.-Y.Z.); (Y.S.); (L.-H.L.)
| | - Chi-Xian Lin
- Hainan Key Laboratory of Herpetological Research, College of Fisheries and Life Science, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572022, China; (Y.D.); (J.-G.L.)
- MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572022, China
| | - Xiang Ji
- MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya 572022, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China; (J.-Q.L.); (Y.-F.Q.)
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Jian-Fang Gao
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China; (H.-Y.Z.); (Y.S.); (L.-H.L.)
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18
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Zhao HY, Wen L, Miao YF, Du Y, Sun Y, Yin Y, Lin CX, Lin LH, Ji X, Gao JF. Venom-gland transcriptomic, venomic, and antivenomic profiles of the spine-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis curtus) from the South China Sea. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:520. [PMID: 34238212 PMCID: PMC8268360 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07824-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A comprehensive evaluation of the -omic profiles of venom is important for understanding the potential function and evolution of snake venom. Here, we conducted an integrated multi-omics-analysis to unveil the venom-transcriptomic and venomic profiles in a same group of spine-bellied sea snakes (Hydrophis curtus) from the South China Sea, where the snake is a widespread species and might generate regionally-specific venom potentially harmful to human activities. The capacity of two heterologous antivenoms to immunocapture the H. curtus venom was determined for an in-depth evaluation of their rationality in treatment of H. curtus envenomation. In addition, a phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood was used to detect the adaptive molecular evolution of full-length toxin-coding unigenes. Results A total of 90,909,384 pairs of clean reads were generated via Illumina sequencing from a pooled cDNA library of six specimens, and yielding 148,121 unigenes through de novo assembly. Sequence similarity searching harvested 63,845 valid annotations, including 63,789 non-toxin-coding and 56 toxin-coding unigenes belonging to 22 protein families. Three protein families, three-finger toxins (3-FTx), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and cysteine-rich secretory protein, were detected in the venom proteome. 3-FTx (27.15% in the transcriptome/41.94% in the proteome) and PLA2 (59.71%/49.36%) were identified as the most abundant families in the venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome. In addition, 24 unigenes from 11 protein families were shown to have experienced positive selection in their evolutionary history, whereas four were relatively conserved throughout evolution. Commercial Naja atra antivenom exhibited a stronger capacity than Bungarus multicinctus antivenom to immunocapture H. curtus venom components, especially short neurotoxins, with the capacity of both antivenoms to immunocapture short neurotoxins being weaker than that for PLA2s. Conclusions Our study clarified the venom-gland transcriptomic and venomic profiles along with the within-group divergence of a H. curtus population from the South China Sea. Adaptive evolution of most venom components driven by natural selection appeared to occur rapidly during evolutionary history. Notably, the utility of commercial N. atra and B. multicinctus antivenoms against H. curtus toxins was not comprehensive; thus, the development of species-specific antivenom is urgently needed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-07824-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Yan Zhao
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lin Wen
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yu-Feng Miao
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yu Du
- Hainan Key Laboratory of Herpetological Research, College of Fisheries and Life Science, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China.,MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yin Yin
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Chi-Xian Lin
- Hainan Key Laboratory of Herpetological Research, College of Fisheries and Life Science, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China.,MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China
| | - Long-Hui Lin
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiang Ji
- MOE Key Laboratory of Utilization and Conservation for Tropical Marine Bioresources, Hainan Tropical Ocean University, Sanya, 572022, Hainan, China. .,Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China. .,College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Jian-Fang Gao
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory for Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, Zhejiang, China.
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19
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Snake venom vascular endothelial growth factors (svVEGFs): Unravelling their molecular structure, functions, and research potential. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2021; 60:133-143. [PMID: 34090786 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2021.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a key regulator of angiogenesis, a physiological process characterized by the formation of new vessels from a preexisting endothelium. VEGF has also been implicated in pathologic states, such as neoplasias, intraocular neovascular disorders, among other conditions. VEGFs are distributed in seven different families: VEGF-A, B, C, D, and PIGF (placental growth factor), which are identified in mammals; VEGF-E, which are encountered in viruses; and VEGF-F or svVEGF (snake venom VEGF) described in snake venoms. This is the pioneer review of svVEGF family, exploring its distribution among the snake venoms, molecular structure, main functions, and potential applications.
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20
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Mouchbahani-Constance S, Sharif-Naeini R. Proteomic and Transcriptomic Techniques to Decipher the Molecular Evolution of Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:154. [PMID: 33669432 PMCID: PMC7920473 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Nature's library of venoms is a vast and untapped resource that has the potential of becoming the source of a wide variety of new drugs and therapeutics. The discovery of these valuable molecules, hidden in diverse collections of different venoms, requires highly specific genetic and proteomic sequencing techniques. These have been used to sequence a variety of venom glands from species ranging from snakes to scorpions, and some marine species. In addition to identifying toxin sequences, these techniques have paved the way for identifying various novel evolutionary links between species that were previously thought to be unrelated. Furthermore, proteomics-based techniques have allowed researchers to discover how specific toxins have evolved within related species, and in the context of environmental pressures. These techniques allow groups to discover novel proteins, identify mutations of interest, and discover new ways to modify toxins for biomimetic purposes and for the development of new therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reza Sharif-Naeini
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, Alan Edwards Center for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada;
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21
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Tan CH, Tan KY. De Novo Venom-Gland Transcriptomics of Spine-Bellied Sea Snake ( Hydrophis curtus) from Penang, Malaysia-Next-Generation Sequencing, Functional Annotation and Toxinological Correlation. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020127. [PMID: 33572266 PMCID: PMC7915529 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Envenomation resulted from sea snake bite is a highly lethal health hazard in Southeast Asia. Although commonly caused by sea snakes of Hydrophiinae, each species is evolutionarily distinct and thus, unveiling the toxin gene diversity within individual species is important. Applying next-generation sequencing, this study investigated the venom-gland transcriptome of Hydrophis curtus (spine-bellied sea snake) from Penang, West Malaysia. The transcriptome was de novo assembled, followed by gene annotation and sequence analyses. Transcripts with toxin annotation were only 96 in number but highly expressed, constituting 48.18% of total FPKM in the overall transcriptome. Of the 21 toxin families, three-finger toxins (3FTX) were the most abundantly expressed and functionally diverse, followed by phospholipases A2. Lh_FTX001 (short neurotoxin) and Lh_FTX013 (long neurotoxin) were the most dominant 3FTXs expressed, consistent with the pathophysiology of envenomation. Lh_FTX001 and Lh_FTX013 were variable in amino acid compositions and predicted epitopes, while Lh_FTX001 showed high sequence similarity with the short neurotoxin from Hydrophis schistosus, supporting cross-neutralization effect of Sea Snake Antivenom. Other toxins of low gene expression, for example, snake venom metalloproteinases and L-amino acid oxidases not commonly studied in sea snake venom were also identified, enriching the knowledgebase of sea snake toxins for future study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Venom Research and Toxicoogy Lab, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
- Correspondence:
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Protein and Interactomics Lab, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
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22
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Dashevsky D, Rokyta D, Frank N, Nouwens A, Fry BG. Electric Blue: Molecular Evolution of Three-Finger Toxins in the Long-Glanded Coral Snake Species Calliophis bivirgatus. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:124. [PMID: 33567660 PMCID: PMC7915963 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The genus Calliophis is the most basal branch of the family Elapidae and several species in it have developed highly elongated venom glands. Recent research has shown that C. bivirgatus has evolved a seemingly unique toxin (calliotoxin) that produces spastic paralysis in their prey by acting on the voltage-gated sodium (NaV) channels. We assembled a transcriptome from C. bivirgatus to investigate the molecular characteristics of these toxins and the venom as a whole. We find strong confirmation that this genus produces the classic elapid eight-cysteine three-finger toxins, that δδ-elapitoxins (toxins that resemble calliotoxin) are responsible for a substantial portion of the venom composition, and that these toxins form a distinct clade within a larger, more diverse clade of C. bivirgatus three-finger toxins. This broader clade of C. bivirgatus toxins also contains the previously named maticotoxins and is somewhat closely related to cytotoxins from other elapids. However, the toxins from this clade that have been characterized are not themselves cytotoxic. No other toxins show clear relationships to toxins of known function from other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
- Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Darin Rokyta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 24105, USA;
| | - Nathaniel Frank
- MToxins Venom Lab, 717 Oregon Street, Oshkosh, WI 54902, USA;
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
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23
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Kazandjian TD, Petras D, Robinson SD, van Thiel J, Greene HW, Arbuckle K, Barlow A, Carter DA, Wouters RM, Whiteley G, Wagstaff SC, Arias AS, Albulescu LO, Plettenberg Laing A, Hall C, Heap A, Penrhyn-Lowe S, McCabe CV, Ainsworth S, da Silva RR, Dorrestein PC, Richardson MK, Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ, Harrison RA, Vetter I, Undheim EAB, Wüster W, Casewell NR. Convergent evolution of pain-inducing defensive venom components in spitting cobras. Science 2021; 371:386-390. [PMID: 33479150 PMCID: PMC7610493 DOI: 10.1126/science.abb9303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Convergent evolution provides insights into the selective drivers underlying evolutionary change. Snake venoms, with a direct genetic basis and clearly defined functional phenotype, provide a model system for exploring the repeated evolution of adaptations. While snakes use venom primarily for predation, and venom composition often reflects diet specificity, three lineages of cobras have independently evolved the ability to spit venom at adversaries. Using gene, protein, and functional analyses, we show that the three spitting lineages possess venoms characterized by an up-regulation of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) toxins, which potentiate the action of preexisting venom cytotoxins to activate mammalian sensory neurons and cause enhanced pain. These repeated independent changes provide a fascinating example of convergent evolution across multiple phenotypic levels driven by selection for defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D Kazandjian
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - D Petras
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - S D Robinson
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - J van Thiel
- Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden 2333BE, Netherlands
| | - H W Greene
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - K Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - A Barlow
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - D A Carter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - R M Wouters
- Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden 2333BE, Netherlands
| | - G Whiteley
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - S C Wagstaff
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
- Research Computing Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - A S Arias
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - L-O Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - A Plettenberg Laing
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - C Hall
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - A Heap
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - S Penrhyn-Lowe
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - C V McCabe
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1RL, UK
| | - S Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - R R da Silva
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos (NPPNS), Molecular Sciences Department, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - P C Dorrestein
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - M K Richardson
- Institute of Biology, University of Leiden, Leiden 2333BE, Netherlands
| | - J M Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - J J Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - R A Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - I Vetter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - E A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - W Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - N R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK.
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24
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Freitas-de-Sousa LA, Nachtigall PG, Portes-Junior JA, Holding ML, Nystrom GS, Ellsworth SA, Guimarães NC, Tioyama E, Ortiz F, Silva BR, Kunz TS, Junqueira-de-Azevedo ILM, Grazziotin FG, Rokyta DR, Moura-da-Silva AM. Size Matters: An Evaluation of the Molecular Basis of Ontogenetic Modifications in the Composition of Bothrops jararacussu Snake Venom. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120791. [PMID: 33322460 PMCID: PMC7763748 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Ontogenetic changes in venom composition have been described in Bothrops snakes, but only a few studies have attempted to identify the targeted paralogues or the molecular mechanisms involved in modifications of gene expression during ontogeny. In this study, we decoded B. jararacussu venom gland transcripts from six specimens of varying sizes and analyzed the variability in the composition of independent venom proteomes from 19 individuals. We identified 125 distinct putative toxin transcripts, and of these, 73 were detected in venom proteomes and only 10 were involved in the ontogenetic changes. Ontogenetic variability was linearly related to snake size and did not correspond to the maturation of the reproductive stage. Changes in the transcriptome were highly predictive of changes in the venom proteome. The basic myotoxic phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) were the most abundant components in larger snakes, while in venoms from smaller snakes, PIII-class SVMPs were the major components. The snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) identified corresponded to novel sequences and conferred higher pro-coagulant and hemorrhagic functions to the venom of small snakes. The mechanisms modulating venom variability are predominantly related to transcriptional events and may consist of an advantage of higher hematotoxicity and more efficient predatory function in the venom from small snakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana A. Freitas-de-Sousa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências-Toxinologia, Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (N.C.G.); (E.T.)
- Correspondence: (L.A.F.-d.-S.); (A.M.M.-d.-S.); Tel.: +55-11-2627-9779 (A.M.M.-d.-S.)
| | - Pedro G. Nachtigall
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (P.G.N.); (I.L.M.J.-d.-A.)
| | - José A. Portes-Junior
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (J.A.P.-J.); (F.O.); (B.R.S.); (T.S.K.); (F.G.G.)
| | - Matthew L. Holding
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; (M.L.H.); (G.S.N.); (S.A.E.); (D.R.R.)
| | - Gunnar S. Nystrom
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; (M.L.H.); (G.S.N.); (S.A.E.); (D.R.R.)
| | - Schyler A. Ellsworth
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; (M.L.H.); (G.S.N.); (S.A.E.); (D.R.R.)
| | - Noranathan C. Guimarães
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências-Toxinologia, Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (N.C.G.); (E.T.)
| | - Emilly Tioyama
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências-Toxinologia, Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (N.C.G.); (E.T.)
| | - Flora Ortiz
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (J.A.P.-J.); (F.O.); (B.R.S.); (T.S.K.); (F.G.G.)
| | - Bruno R. Silva
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (J.A.P.-J.); (F.O.); (B.R.S.); (T.S.K.); (F.G.G.)
| | - Tobias S. Kunz
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (J.A.P.-J.); (F.O.); (B.R.S.); (T.S.K.); (F.G.G.)
| | | | - Felipe G. Grazziotin
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (J.A.P.-J.); (F.O.); (B.R.S.); (T.S.K.); (F.G.G.)
| | - Darin R. Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; (M.L.H.); (G.S.N.); (S.A.E.); (D.R.R.)
| | - Ana M. Moura-da-Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências-Toxinologia, Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (N.C.G.); (E.T.)
- Instituto de Pesquisa Clínica Carlos Borborema, Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, 69040-000 Manaus, AM, Brazil
- Correspondence: (L.A.F.-d.-S.); (A.M.M.-d.-S.); Tel.: +55-11-2627-9779 (A.M.M.-d.-S.)
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25
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Dashevsky D, Bénard-Valle M, Neri-Castro E, Youngman NJ, Zdenek CN, Alagón A, Portes-Junior JA, Frank N, Fry BG. Anticoagulant Micrurus venoms: Targets and neutralization. Toxicol Lett 2020; 337:91-97. [PMID: 33197555 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease with a massive global burden of injury and death. The best current treatments, antivenoms, are plagued by a number of logistical issues that limit supply and access in remote or poor regions. We explore the anticoagulant properties of venoms from the genus Micrurus (coral snakes), which have been largely unstudied, as well as the effectiveness of antivenom and a small-molecule phospholipase inhibitor-varespladib-at counteracting these effects. Our in vitro results suggest that these venoms likely interfere with the formation or function of the prothrombinase complex. We find that the anticoagulant potency varies widely across the genus and is especially pronounced in M. laticollaris. This variation does not appear to correspond to previously described patterns regarding the relative expression of the three-finger toxin and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) toxin families within the venoms of this genus. The coral snake antivenom Coralmyn, is largely unable to ameliorate these effects except for M. ibiboboca. Varespladib on the other hand completely abolished the anticoagulant activity of every venom. This is consistent with the growing body of results showing that varespladib may be an effective treatment for a wide range of toxicity caused by PLA2 toxins from many different snake species. Varespladib is a particularly attractive candidate to help alleviate the burden of snakebite because it is an approved drug that possesses several logistical advantages over antivenom including temperature stability and oral availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dashevsky
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia; Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization, Canberra, ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Melisa Bénard-Valle
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnologa, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62210, Mexico
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnologa, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62210, Mexico
| | - Nicholas J Youngman
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnologa, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62210, Mexico
| | - José A Portes-Junior
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
| | | | - Bryan G Fry
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia.
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26
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Almeida D, Domínguez-Pérez D, Matos A, Agüero-Chapin G, Osório H, Vasconcelos V, Campos A, Antunes A. Putative Antimicrobial Peptides of the Posterior Salivary Glands from the Cephalopod Octopus vulgaris Revealed by Exploring a Composite Protein Database. Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9:antibiotics9110757. [PMID: 33143020 PMCID: PMC7693380 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics9110757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cephalopods, successful predators, can use a mixture of substances to subdue their prey, becoming interesting sources of bioactive compounds. In addition to neurotoxins and enzymes, the presence of antimicrobial compounds has been reported. Recently, the transcriptome and the whole proteome of the Octopus vulgaris salivary apparatus were released, but the role of some compounds—e.g., histones, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), and toxins—remains unclear. Herein, we profiled the proteome of the posterior salivary glands (PSGs) of O. vulgaris using two sample preparation protocols combined with a shotgun-proteomics approach. Protein identification was performed against a composite database comprising data from the UniProtKB, all transcriptomes available from the cephalopods’ PSGs, and a comprehensive non-redundant AMPs database. Out of the 10,075 proteins clustered in 1868 protein groups, 90 clusters corresponded to venom protein toxin families. Additionally, we detected putative AMPs clustered with histones previously found as abundant proteins in the saliva of O. vulgaris. Some of these histones, such as H2A and H2B, are involved in systemic inflammatory responses and their antimicrobial effects have been demonstrated. These results not only confirm the production of enzymes and toxins by the O. vulgaris PSGs but also suggest their involvement in the first line of defense against microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Almeida
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (D.A.); (D.D.-P.); (A.M.); (G.A.-C.); (V.V.); (A.C.)
| | - Dany Domínguez-Pérez
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (D.A.); (D.D.-P.); (A.M.); (G.A.-C.); (V.V.); (A.C.)
| | - Ana Matos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (D.A.); (D.D.-P.); (A.M.); (G.A.-C.); (V.V.); (A.C.)
- Biology Department of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Guillermin Agüero-Chapin
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (D.A.); (D.D.-P.); (A.M.); (G.A.-C.); (V.V.); (A.C.)
- Biology Department of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Hugo Osório
- i3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde-i3S, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal;
- Ipatimup—Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Pathology and Oncology of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (D.A.); (D.D.-P.); (A.M.); (G.A.-C.); (V.V.); (A.C.)
- Biology Department of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Alexandre Campos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (D.A.); (D.D.-P.); (A.M.); (G.A.-C.); (V.V.); (A.C.)
| | - Agostinho Antunes
- CIIMAR/CIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4450-208 Porto, Portugal; (D.A.); (D.D.-P.); (A.M.); (G.A.-C.); (V.V.); (A.C.)
- Biology Department of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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27
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Pereira LDM, Messias EA, Sorroche BP, Oliveira ADN, Arantes LMRB, de Carvalho AC, Tanaka-Azevedo AM, Grego KF, Carvalho AL, Melendez ME. In-depth transcriptome reveals the potential biotechnological application of Bothrops jararaca venom gland. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2020; 26:e20190058. [PMID: 33149734 PMCID: PMC7579844 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Lack of complete genomic data of Bothrops jararaca impedes molecular biology research focusing on biotechnological applications of venom gland components. Identification of full-length coding regions of genes is crucial for the correct molecular cloning design. Methods: RNA was extracted from the venom gland of one adult female specimen of Bothrops jararaca. Deep sequencing of the mRNA library was performed using Illumina NextSeq 500 platform. De novo assembly of B. jararaca transcriptome was done using Trinity. Annotation was performed using Blast2GO. All predicted proteins after clustering step were blasted against non-redundant protein database of NCBI using BLASTP. Metabolic pathways present in the transcriptome were annotated using the KAAS-KEGG Automatic Annotation Server. Toxins were identified in the B. jararaca predicted proteome using BLASTP against all protein sequences obtained from Animal Toxin Annotation Project from Uniprot KB/Swiss-Pro database. Figures and data visualization were performed using ggplot2 package in R language environment. Results: We described the in-depth transcriptome analysis of B. jararaca venom gland, in which 76,765 de novo assembled isoforms, 96,044 transcribed genes and 41,196 unique proteins were identified. The most abundant transcript was the zinc metalloproteinase-disintegrin-like jararhagin. Moreover, we identified 78 distinct functional classes of proteins, including toxins, inhibitors and tumor suppressors. Other venom proteins identified were the hemolytic lethal factors stonustoxin and verrucotoxin. Conclusion: It is believed that the application of deep sequencing to the analysis of snake venom transcriptomes may represent invaluable insight on their biotechnological potential focusing on candidate molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro de Mattos Pereira
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, SP, Brazil.,Laboratory of Molecular Microbial Ecology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Elisa Alves Messias
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - André Lopes Carvalho
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, SP, Brazil
| | - Matias Eliseo Melendez
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, SP, Brazil.,Pelé Little Prince Research Institute, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.,Little Prince College, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
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28
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Ullah A, Masood R. The Sequence and Three-Dimensional Structure Characterization of Snake Venom Phospholipases B. Front Mol Biosci 2020; 7:175. [PMID: 32850964 PMCID: PMC7419708 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2020.00175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake venom phospholipases B (SVPLBs) are the least studied enzymes. They constitute about 1% of Bothrops crude venoms, however, in other snake venoms, it is present in less than 1%. These enzymes are considered the most potent hemolytic agent in the venom. Currently, no structural information is available about these enzymes from snake venom. To better understand its three-dimensional structure and mechanisms of envenomation, the current work describes the first model-based structure report of this enzyme from Bothrops moojeni venom named as B. moojeni phospholipase B (PLB_Bm). The structure model of PLB_Bm was generated using model building software like I-TESSER, MODELLER 9v19, and Swiss-Model. The build PLB_Bm model was validated using validation tools (PROCHECK, ERRAT, and Verif3D). The analysis of the PLB_Bm modeled structure indicates that it contains 491 amino acid residues that form a well-defined four-layer αββα sandwich core and has a typical fold of the N-terminal nucleophile aminohydrolase (Ntn-hydrolase). The overall structure of PLB_Bm contains 18 β-strands and 17 α-helices with many connecting loops. The structure divides into two chains (A and B) after maturation. The A chain is smaller and contains 207 amino acid residues, whereas the B chain is larger and contains 266 amino acid residues. The sequence and structural comparison among homologous snake venom, bacterial, and mammals PLBs indicate that differences in the length and sequence composition may confer variable substrate specificity to these enzymes. Moreover, the surface charge distribution, average volume, and depth of the active site cavity also vary in these enzymes. The present work will provide more information about the structure-function relationship and mechanism of action of these enzymes in snakebite envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anwar Ullah
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Rehana Masood
- Department of Biochemistry, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Women University Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
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29
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Bénard-Valle M, Neri-Castro E, Yañez-Mendoza MF, Lomonte B, Olvera A, Zamudio F, Restano-Cassulini R, Possani LD, Jiménez-Ferrer E, Alagón A. Functional, proteomic and transcriptomic characterization of the venom from Micrurus browni browni: Identification of the first lethal multimeric neurotoxin in coral snake venom. J Proteomics 2020; 225:103863. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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30
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Modahl CM, Roointan A, Rogers J, Currier K, Mackessy SP. Interspecific and intraspecific venom enzymatic variation among cobras (Naja sp. and Ophiophagus hannah). Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 232:108743. [PMID: 32194156 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The genera Ophiophagus and Naja comprise part of a clade of snakes referred to as cobras, dangerously venomous front-fanged snakes in the family Elapidae responsible for significant human mortality and morbidity throughout Asia and Africa. We evaluated venom enzyme variation for eleven cobra species and three N. kaouthia populations using SDS-PAGE venom fingerprinting and numerous enzyme assays. Acetylcholinesterase and PLA2 activities were the most variable between species, and PLA2 activity was significantly different between Malaysian and Thailand N. kaouthia populations. Venom metalloproteinase activity was low and significantly different among most species, but levels were identical for N. kaouthia populations; minor variation in venom L-amino acid oxidase and phosphodiesterase activities were seen between cobra species. Naja siamensis venom lacked the α-fibrinogenolytic activity common to other cobra venoms. In addition, venom from N. siamensis had no detectable metalloproteinase activity and exhibited an SDS-PAGE profile with reduced abundance of higher mass proteins. Venom profiles from spitting cobras (N. siamensis, N. pallida, and N. mossambica) exhibited similar reductions in higher mass proteins, suggesting the evolution of venoms of reduced complexity and decreased enzymatic activity among spitting cobras. Generally, the venom proteomes of cobras show highly abundant three-finger toxin diversity, followed by large quantities of PLA2s. However, PLA2 bands and activity were very reduced for N. haje, N. annulifera and N. nivea. Venom compositionalenzy analysis provides insight into the evolution, diversification and distribution of different venom phenotypes that complements venomic data, and this information is critical for the development of effective antivenoms and snakebite treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra M Modahl
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
| | - Amir Roointan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore; Regenerative Medicine Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Jessica Rogers
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
| | - Katelyn Currier
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA.
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31
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Venom gland transcriptome from Heloderma horridum horridum by high-throughput sequencing. Toxicon 2020; 180:62-78. [PMID: 32283106 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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32
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Fangs for the Memories? A Survey of Pain in Snakebite Patients Does Not Support a Strong Role for Defense in the Evolution of Snake Venom Composition. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12030201. [PMID: 32235759 PMCID: PMC7150919 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals use venoms for multiple purposes, most prominently for prey acquisition and self-defense. In snakes, venom composition often evolves as a result of selection for optimization for local diet. However, whether selection for a defensive function has also played a role in driving the evolution of venom composition has remained largely unstudied. Here, we use an online survey of snakebite victims to test a key prediction of a defensive function, that envenoming should result in the rapid onset of severe pain. From the analysis of 584 snakebite reports, involving 192 species of venomous snake, we find that the vast majority of bites do not result in severe early pain. Phylogenetic comparative analysis shows that where early pain after a bite evolves, it is often lost rapidly. Our results, therefore, do not support the hypothesis that natural selection for antipredator defense played an important role in the origin of venom or front-fanged delivery systems in general, although there may be intriguing exceptions to this rule.
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33
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Foo CS, Jobichen C, Hassan-Puttaswamy V, Dekan Z, Tae HS, Bertrand D, Adams DJ, Alewood PF, Sivaraman J, Nirthanan S, Kini RM. Fulditoxin, representing a new class of dimeric snake toxins, defines novel pharmacology at nicotinic ACh receptors. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 177:1822-1840. [PMID: 31877243 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Animal toxins have contributed significantly to our understanding of the neurobiology of receptors and ion channels. We studied the venom of the coral snake Micrurus fulvius fulvius and identified and characterized the structure and pharmacology of a new homodimeric neurotoxin, fulditoxin, that exhibited novel pharmacology at nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Fulditoxin was isolated by chromatography, chemically synthesized, its structure determined by X-ray crystallography, and its pharmacological actions on nAChRs characterized by organ bath assays and two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology. KEY RESULTS Fulditoxin's distinct 1.95-Å quaternary structure revealed two short-chain three-finger α-neurotoxins (α-3FNTxs) non-covalently bound by hydrophobic interactions and an ability to bind metal and form tetrameric complexes, not reported previously for three-finger proteins. Although fulditoxin lacked all conserved amino acids canonically important for inhibiting nAChRs, it produced postsynaptic neuromuscular blockade of chick muscle at nanomolar concentrations, comparable to the prototypical α-bungarotoxin. This neuromuscular blockade was completely reversible, which is unusual for snake α-3FNTxs. Fulditoxin, therefore, interacts with nAChRs by utilizing a different pharmacophore. Unlike short-chain α-3FNTxs that bind only to muscle nAChRs, fulditoxin utilizes dimerization to expand its pharmacological targets to include human neuronal α4β2, α7, and α3β2 nAChRs which it blocked with IC50 values of 1.8, 7, and 12 μM respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Based on its distinct quaternary structure and unusual pharmacology, we named this new class of dimeric Micrurus neurotoxins represented by fulditoxin as Σ-neurotoxins, which offers greater insight into understanding the interactions between nAChRs and peptide antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Shin Foo
- Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chacko Jobichen
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Varuna Hassan-Puttaswamy
- Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Zoltan Dekan
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Han-Shen Tae
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
| | | | - David J Adams
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Paul F Alewood
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - J Sivaraman
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Selvanayagam Nirthanan
- School of Medical Science, Griffith Health Group, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - R Manjunatha Kini
- Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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34
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Rey-Suárez P, Saldarriaga-Córdoba M, Torres U, Marin-Villa M, Lomonte B, Núñez V. Novel three-finger toxins from Micrurus dumerilii and Micrurus mipartitus coral snake venoms: Phylogenetic relationships and characterization of Clarkitoxin-I-Mdum. Toxicon 2019; 170:85-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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35
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Modahl CM, Brahma RK, Koh CY, Shioi N, Kini RM. Omics Technologies for Profiling Toxin Diversity and Evolution in Snake Venom: Impacts on the Discovery of Therapeutic and Diagnostic Agents. Annu Rev Anim Biosci 2019; 8:91-116. [PMID: 31702940 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-021419-083626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms are primarily composed of proteins and peptides, and these toxins have developed high selectivity to their biological targets. This makes venoms interesting for exploration into protein evolution and structure-function relationships. A single venom protein superfamily can exhibit a variety of pharmacological effects; these variations in activity originate from differences in functional sites, domains, posttranslational modifications, and the formations of toxin complexes. In this review, we discuss examples of how the major venom protein superfamilies have diversified, as well as how newer technologies in the omics fields, such as genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics, can be used to characterize both known and unknown toxins.Because toxins are bioactive molecules with a rich diversity of activities, they can be useful as therapeutic and diagnostic agents, and successful examples of toxin applications in these areas are also reviewed. With the current rapid pace of technology, snake venom research and its applications will only continue to expand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra M Modahl
- Protein Science Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Singapore, Singapore 119077; , ,
| | - Rajeev Kungur Brahma
- Protein Science Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Singapore, Singapore 119077; , ,
| | - Cho Yeow Koh
- Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077;
| | - Narumi Shioi
- Protein Science Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Singapore, Singapore 119077; , , .,Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan;
| | - R Manjunatha Kini
- Protein Science Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Singapore, Singapore 119077; , ,
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36
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Sanz L, de Freitas-Lima LN, Quesada-Bernat S, Graça-de-Souza VK, Soares AM, Calderón LDA, Calvete JJ, Caldeira CA. Comparative venomics of Brazilian coral snakes: Micrurus frontalis, Micrurus spixii spixii, and Micrurus surinamensis. Toxicon 2019; 166:39-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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37
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Albulescu LO, Kazandjian T, Slagboom J, Bruyneel B, Ainsworth S, Alsolaiss J, Wagstaff SC, Whiteley G, Harrison RA, Ulens C, Kool J, Casewell NR. A Decoy-Receptor Approach Using Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Mimics Reveals Their Potential as Novel Therapeutics Against Neurotoxic Snakebite. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:848. [PMID: 31417406 PMCID: PMC6683245 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that causes 138,000 deaths each year. Neurotoxic snake venoms contain small neurotoxins, including three-finger toxins (3FTxs), which can cause rapid paralysis in snakebite victims by blocking postsynaptic transmission via nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). These toxins are typically weakly immunogenic and thus are often not effectively targeted by current polyclonal antivenom therapies. We investigated whether nAChR mimics, also known as acetylcholine binding proteins (AChBPs), could effectively capture 3FTxs and therefore be developed as a novel class of snake-generic therapeutics for combatting neurotoxic envenoming. First, we identified the binding specificities of 3FTx from various medically important elapid snake venoms to nAChR using two recombinant nAChR mimics: the AChBP from Lymnaea stagnalis and a humanized neuronal α7 version (α7-AChBP). We next characterized these AChBP-bound and unbound fractions using SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry. Interestingly, both mimics effectively captured long-chain 3FTxs from multiple snake species but largely failed to capture the highly related short-chain 3FTxs, suggesting a high level of binding specificity. We next investigated whether nAChR mimics could be used as snakebite therapeutics. We showed that while α7-AChBP alone did not protect against Naja haje (Egyptian cobra) venom lethality in vivo, it significantly prolonged survival times when coadministered with a nonprotective dose of antivenom. Thus, nAChR mimics are capable of neutralizing specific venom toxins and may be useful adjunct therapeutics for improving the safety and affordability of existing snakebite treatments by reducing therapeutic doses. Our findings justify exploring the future development of AChBPs as potential snakebite treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Taline Kazandjian
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Julien Slagboom
- AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Ben Bruyneel
- AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Stuart Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jaffer Alsolaiss
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Simon C Wagstaff
- Bioinformatics Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth Whiteley
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Ulens
- Laboratory of Structural Neurobiology, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Kool
- AIMMS Division of BioMolecular Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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38
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Modahl CM, Mackessy SP. Venoms of Rear-Fanged Snakes: New Proteins and Novel Activities. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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39
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Rautsaw RM, Hofmann EP, Margres MJ, Holding ML, Strickland JL, Mason AJ, Rokyta DR, Parkinson CL. Intraspecific sequence and gene expression variation contribute little to venom diversity in sidewinder rattlesnakes ( Crotalus cerastes). Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20190810. [PMID: 31266424 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.0810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Traits can evolve rapidly through changes in gene expression or protein-coding sequences. However, these forms of genetic variation can be correlated and changes to one can influence the other. As a result, we might expect traits lacking differential expression to preferentially evolve through changes in protein sequences or morphological adaptation. Given the lack of differential expression across the distribution of sidewinder rattlesnakes ( Crotalus cerastes), we tested this hypothesis by comparing the coding regions of genes expressed in the venom gland transcriptomes and fang morphology. We calculated Tajima's D and FST across four populations comparing toxin and nontoxin loci. Overall, we found little evidence of directional selection or differentiation between populations, suggesting that changes to protein sequences do not underlie the evolution of sidewinder venom or that toxins are under extremely variant selection pressures. Although low-expression toxins do not have higher sequence divergence between populations, they do have more standing variation on which selection can act. Additionally, we found significant differences in fang length among populations. The lack of differential expression and sequence divergence suggests sidewinders-given their generalist diet, moderate gene flow and environmental variation-are under stabilizing selection which functions to maintain a generalist phenotype. Overall, we demonstrate the importance of examining the relationship between gene expression and protein-coding changes to understand the evolution of complex traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhett M Rautsaw
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University , Clemson, SC 29634 , USA
| | - Erich P Hofmann
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University , Clemson, SC 29634 , USA
| | - Mark J Margres
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University , Clemson, SC 29634 , USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University , Clemson, SC 29634 , USA.,3 Department of Biological Science, Florida State University , Tallahassee, FL 32306 , USA
| | - Jason L Strickland
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University , Clemson, SC 29634 , USA
| | - Andrew J Mason
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University , Clemson, SC 29634 , USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- 3 Department of Biological Science, Florida State University , Tallahassee, FL 32306 , USA
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University , Clemson, SC 29634 , USA.,2 Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University , Clemson, SC 29634 , USA
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40
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Margres MJ, Patton A, Wray KP, Hassinger ATB, Ward MJ, Lemmon EM, Lemmon AR, Rokyta DR. Tipping the Scales: The Migration-Selection Balance Leans toward Selection in Snake Venoms. Mol Biol Evol 2019; 36:271-282. [PMID: 30395254 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The migration-selection interaction is the strongest determinant of whether a beneficial allele increases in frequency within a population. Results of empirical studies examining the role of gene flow in an adaptive context, however, have largely been equivocal, with examples of opposing outcomes being repeatedly documented (e.g., local adaptation with high levels of gene flow vs. gene swamping). We compared neutral genomic and venom expression divergence for three sympatric pit vipers with differing ecologies to determine if and how migration-selection disequilibria result in local adaptation. We specifically tested whether neutral differentiation predicted phenotypic differentiation within an isolation-by-distance framework. The decoupling of neutral and phenotypic differentiation would indicate selection led to adaptive divergence irrespective of migration, whereas a significant relationship between neutral and venom expression differentiation would provide evidence in favor of the constraining force of gene flow. Neutral differentiation and geographic distance predicted phenotypic differentiation only in the generalist species, indicating that selection was the predominant mechanism in the migration-selection balance underlying adaptive venom evolution in both specialists. Dispersal is thought to be a stronger influence on genetic differentiation than specialization, but our results suggest the opposite. Greater specialization may lead to greater diversification rates, and extreme spatial and temporal variation in selective pressures can favor generalist phenotypes evolving under strong stabilizing selection. Our results are consistent with these expectations, suggesting that the equivocal findings of studies examining the role of gene flow in an adaptive context may be explained by ecological specialization theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Margres
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.,School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC
| | - Austin Patton
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA
| | - Kenneth P Wray
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
| | - Alyssa T B Hassinger
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.,Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
| | - Micaiah J Ward
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
| | | | - Alan R Lemmon
- Department of Scientific Computing, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
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41
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Whittington AC, Mason AJ, Rokyta DR. A Single Mutation Unlocks Cascading Exaptations in the Origin of a Potent Pitviper Neurotoxin. Mol Biol Evol 2019; 35:887-898. [PMID: 29329419 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msx334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary innovations and complex phenotypes seemingly require an improbable amount of genetic change to evolve. Rattlesnakes display two dramatically different venom phenotypes. Type I venoms are hemorrhagic with low systemic toxicity and high expression of tissue-destroying snake venom metalloproteinases. Type II venoms are highly neurotoxic and lack snake venom metalloproteinase expression and associated hemorrhagic activity. This dichotomy hinges on Mojave toxin (MTx), a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) based β-neurotoxin expressed in Type II venoms. MTx is comprised of a nontoxic acidic subunit that undergoes extensive proteolytic processing and allosterically regulates activity of a neurotoxic basic subunit. Evolution of the acidic subunit presents an evolutionary challenge because the need for high expression of a nontoxic venom component and the proteolytic machinery required for processing suggests genetic changes of seemingly little immediate benefit to fitness. We showed that MTx evolved through a cascading series of exaptations unlocked by a single nucleotide change. The evolution of one new cleavage site in the acidic subunit unmasked buried cleavage sites already present in ancestral PLA2s, enabling proteolytic processing. Snake venom serine proteases, already present in the venom to disrupt prey hemostasis, possess the requisite specificities for MTx acidic subunit proteolysis. The dimerization interface between MTx subunits evolved by exploiting a latent, but masked, hydrophobic interaction between ancestral PLA2s. The evolution of MTx through exaptation of existing functional and structural features suggests complex phenotypes that depend on evolutionary innovations can arise from minimal genetic change enabled by prior evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Carl Whittington
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
| | - Andrew J Mason
- Department of Biology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
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Hofmann EP, Rautsaw RM, Strickland JL, Holding ML, Hogan MP, Mason AJ, Rokyta DR, Parkinson CL. Comparative venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics of four Sidewinder Rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) lineages reveal little differential expression despite individual variation. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15534. [PMID: 30341342 PMCID: PMC6195556 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33943-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Changes in gene expression can rapidly influence adaptive traits in the early stages of lineage diversification. Venom is an adaptive trait comprised of numerous toxins used for prey capture and defense. Snake venoms can vary widely between conspecific populations, but the influence of lineage diversification on such compositional differences are unknown. To explore venom differentiation in the early stages of lineage diversification, we used RNA-seq and mass spectrometry to characterize Sidewinder Rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) venom. We generated the first venom-gland transcriptomes and complementary venom proteomes for eight individuals collected across the United States and tested for expression differences across life history traits and between subspecific, mitochondrial, and phylotranscriptomic hypotheses. Sidewinder venom was comprised primarily of hemorrhagic toxins, with few cases of differential expression attributable to life history or lineage hypotheses. However, phylotranscriptomic lineage comparisons more than doubled instances of significant expression differences compared to all other factors. Nevertheless, only 6.4% of toxins were differentially expressed overall, suggesting that shallow divergence has not led to major changes in Sidewinder venom composition. Our results demonstrate the need for consensus venom-gland transcriptomes based on multiple individuals and highlight the potential for discrepancies in differential expression between different phylogenetic hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erich P Hofmann
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
- University of Central Florida, Department of Biology, Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Michael P Hogan
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Andrew J Mason
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
- Clemson University, Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
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Defining the pathogenic threat of envenoming by South African shield-nosed and coral snakes (genus Aspidelaps), and revealing the likely efficacy of available antivenom. J Proteomics 2018; 198:186-198. [PMID: 30290233 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Revised: 09/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
While envenoming by the southern African shield-nosed or coral snakes (genus Aspidelaps) has caused fatalities, bites are uncommon. Consequently, this venom is not used in the mixture of snake venoms used to immunise horses for the manufacture of regional SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research) polyvalent antivenom. Aspidelaps species are even excluded from the manufacturer's list of venomous snakes that can be treated by this highly effective product. This leaves clinicians, albeit rarely, in a therapeutic vacuum when treating envenoming by these snakes. This is a significantly understudied small group of nocturnal snakes and little is known about their venom compositions and toxicities. Using a murine preclinical model, this study determined that the paralysing toxicity of venoms from Aspidelaps scutatus intermedius, A. lubricus cowlesi and A. l. lubricus approached that of venoms from highly neurotoxic African cobras and mambas. This finding was consistent with the cross-genus dominance of venom three-finger toxins, including numerous isoforms which showed extensive interspecific variation. Our comprehensive analysis of venom proteomes showed that the three Aspidelaps species possess highly similar venom proteomic compositions. We also revealed that the SAIMR polyvalent antivenom cross-reacted extensively in vitro with venom proteins of the three Aspidelaps. Importantly, this cross-genus venom-IgG binding translated to preclinical (in a murine model) neutralisation of A. s. intermedius venom-induced lethality by the SAIMR polyvalent antivenom, at doses comparable with those that neutralise venom from the cape cobra (Naja nivea), which the antivenom is directed against. Our results suggest a wider than anticipated clinical utility of the SAIMR polyvalent antivenom, and here we seek to inform southern African clinicians that this readily available antivenom is likely to prove effective for victims of Aspidelaps envenoming. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Coral and shield-nosed snakes (genus Aspidelaps) comprise two species and several subspecies of potentially medically important venomous snakes distributed in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa. Documented human fatalities, although rare, have occurred from both A. lubricus and A. scutatus. However, their venom proteomes and the pathological effects of envenomings by this understudied group of nocturnal snakes remain uncharacterised. Furthermore, no commercial antivenom is made using venom from species of the genus Aspidelaps. To fill this gap, we have conducted a transcriptomics-guided comparative proteomics analysis of the venoms of the intermediate shield-nose snake (A. s. intermedius), southern coral snake (A. l. lubricus), and Cowle's shield snake (A. l. cowlesi); investigated the mechanism of action underpinning lethality by A. s. intermedius in the murine model; and assessed the in vitro immunoreactivity of the SAIMR polyvalent antivenom towards the venom toxins of A. l. lubricus and A. l. cowlesi, and the in vivo capability of this antivenom at neutralising the lethal effect of A. s. intermedius venom. Our data revealed a high degree of conservation of the global composition of the three Aspidelaps venom proteomes, all characterised by the overwhelming predominance of neurotoxic 3FTxs, which induced classical signs of systemic neurotoxicity in mice. The SAIMR polyvalent antivenom extensively binds to Aspidelaps venom toxins and neutralised, with a potency of 0.235 mg venom/mL antivenom, the lethal effect of A. s. intermedius venom. Our data suggest that the SAIMR antivenom could be a useful therapeutic tool for treating human envenomings by Aspidelaps species.
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Olamendi-Portugal T, Batista CV, Pedraza-Escalona M, Restano-Cassulini R, Zamudio FZ, Benard-Valle M, de Roodt AR, Possani LD. New insights into the proteomic characterization of the coral snake Micrurus pyrrhocryptus venom. Toxicon 2018; 153:23-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Durban J, Sasa M, Calvete JJ. Venom gland transcriptomics and microRNA profiling of juvenile and adult yellow-bellied sea snake, Hydrophis platurus, from Playa del Coco (Guanacaste, Costa Rica). Toxicon 2018; 153:96-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Modeling and molecular dynamics indicate that snake venom phospholipase B-like enzymes are Ntn-hydrolases. Toxicon 2018; 153:106-113. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Tan KY, Liew JL, Tan NH, Quah ESH, Ismail AK, Tan CH. Unlocking the secrets of banded coral snake (Calliophis intestinalis, Malaysia): A venom with proteome novelty, low toxicity and distinct antigenicity. J Proteomics 2018; 192:246-257. [PMID: 30243938 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The Asiatic coral snakes are basal in the phylogeny of coral snakes. Although envenoming by the Asiatic coral snakes is rarely fatal, little is known about their venom properties and variability from the American coral snakes. Integrating reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography and nano-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, we showed that the venom proteome of the Malaysian banded or striped coral snake (Calliophis intestinalis) was composed of mainly phospholipases A2 (PLA2, 43.4%) and three-finger toxins (3FTx, 20.1%). Within 3FTx, the cytotoxins or cardiotoxins (CTX) dominated while the neurotoxins' content was much lower. Its subproteomic details contrasted with the 3FTx profile of most Micrurus sp., illustrating a unique dichotomy of venom phenotype between the Old and the New World coral snakes. Calliophis intestinalis venom proteome was correlated with measured enzymatic activities, and in vivo it was myotoxic but non-lethal to mice, frogs and geckos at high doses (5-10 μg/g). The venom contains species-specific toxins with distinct sequences and antigenicity, and the antibodies raised against PLA2 and CTX of other elapids showed poor binding toward its venom antigens. The unique venom proteome of C. intestinalis unveiled a repertoire of novel toxins, and the toxicity test supported the need for post-bite monitoring of myotoxic complication. SIGNIFICANCE: Malaysian banded or striped coral snake (Calliophis intestinalis) has a cytotoxin (CTX)-predominating venom proteome, a characteristic shared by its congener, the Malayan blue coral snake (Calliophis bivirgata). With little neurotoxins (NTX), it illustrates a CTX/NTX dichotomy of venom phenotype between the Old World and the New World coral snakes. The low toxicity of the venom imply that C. intestinalis bite envenoming can be managed via symptomatic relief of the mild to moderate pain with appropriate analgesia. Systemically, the serum creatine kinase level of patients should be monitored serially for potential complication of myotoxicity. The distinct antigenicity of the venom proteins implies that the empirical use of heterologous antivenom is mostly inappropriate and not recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Jia Lee Liew
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Evan S H Quah
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Ahmad Khaldun Ismail
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia.
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Chapeaurouge A, Silva A, Carvalho P, McCleary RJR, Modahl CM, Perales J, Kini RM, Mackessy SP. Proteomic Deep Mining the Venom of the Red-Headed Krait, Bungarus flaviceps. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E373. [PMID: 30217057 PMCID: PMC6162843 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10090373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of -omics technologies allows for the characterization of snake venom composition at a fast rate and at high levels of detail. In the present study, we investigated the protein content of Red-headed Krait (Bungarus flaviceps) venom. This analysis revealed a high diversity of snake venom protein families, as evidenced by high-throughput mass spectrometric analysis. We found all six venom protein families previously reported in a transcriptome study of the venom gland of B. flaviceps, including phospholipases A₂ (PLA₂s), Kunitz-type serine proteinase inhibitors (KSPIs), three-finger toxins (3FTxs), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), snaclecs, and natriuretic peptides. A combined approach of automated database searches and de novo sequencing of tandem mass spectra, followed by sequence similarity searches, revealed the presence of 12 additional toxin families. De novo sequencing alone was able to identify 58 additional peptides, and this approach contributed significantly to the comprehensive description of the venom. Abundant protein families comprise 3FTxs (22.3%), KSPIs (19%), acetylcholinesterases (12.6%), PLA₂s (11.9%), venom endothelial growth factors (VEGFs, 8.4%), nucleotidases (4.3%), and C-type lectin-like proteins (snaclecs, 3.3%); an additional 11 toxin families are present at significantly lower concentrations, including complement depleting factors, a family not previously detected in Bungarus venoms. The utility of a multifaceted approach toward unraveling the proteome of snake venoms, employed here, allowed detection of even minor venom components. This more in-depth knowledge of the composition of B. flaviceps venom facilitates a better understanding of snake venom molecular evolution, in turn contributing to more effective treatment of krait bites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Chapeaurouge
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Ceará, Rua São José, 2º Pavimento, Precabura, Eusébio 61760-000, Brazil.
| | - Andreza Silva
- Laboratório de Toxinologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro 21045-900, Brazil.
| | - Paulo Carvalho
- Computational Mass Spectrometry& Proteomics Group, Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz, Paraná 81350-010, Brazil.
| | - Ryan J R McCleary
- Department of Biology, Stetson University, 421 N. Woodland Blvd, DeLand, FL 32723, USA.
| | - Cassandra Marie Modahl
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Singapore.
| | - Jonas Perales
- Laboratório de Toxinologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro 21045-900, Brazil.
| | - R Manjunatha Kini
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Singapore.
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St., CB 92, Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA.
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Three-Finger Toxin Diversification in the Venoms of Cat-Eye Snakes (Colubridae: Boiga). J Mol Evol 2018; 86:531-545. [PMID: 30206667 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-018-9864-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The Asian genus Boiga (Colubridae) is among the better studied non-front-fanged snake lineages, because their bites have minor, but noticeable, effects on humans. Furthermore, B. irregularis has gained worldwide notoriety for successfully invading Guam and other nearby islands with drastic impacts on the local bird populations. One of the factors thought to allow B. irregularis to become such a noxious pest is irditoxin, a dimeric neurotoxin composed of two three-finger toxins (3FTx) joined by a covalent bond between two newly evolved cysteines. Irditoxin is highly toxic to diapsid (birds and reptiles) prey, but roughly 1000 × less potent to synapsids (mammals). Venom plays an important role in the ecology of all species of Boiga, but it remains unknown if any species besides B. irregularis produce irditoxin-like dimeric toxins. In this study, we use transcriptomic analyses of venom glands from five species [B. cynodon, B. dendrophila dendrophila, B. d. gemmicincta, B. irregularis (Brisbane population), B. irregularis (Sulawesi population), B. nigriceps, B. trigonata] and proteomic analyses of B. d. dendrophila and a representative of the sister genus Toxicodryas blandingii to investigate the evolutionary history of 3FTx within Boiga and its close relative. We found that 92.5% of Boiga 3FTx belong to a single clade which we refer to as denmotoxin-like because of the close relation between these toxins and the monomeric denmotoxin according to phylogenetic, sequence clustering, and protein similarity network analyses. We show for the first time that species beyond B. irregularis secrete 3FTx with additional cysteines in the same position as both the A and B subunits of irditoxin. Transcripts with the characteristic mutations are found in B. d. dendrophila, B. d. gemmicincta, B. irregularis (Brisbane population), B. irregularis (Sulawesi population), and B. nigriceps. These results are confirmed by proteomic analyses that show direct evidence of dimerization within the venom of B. d. dendrophila, but not T. blandingii. Our results also suggest the possibility of novel dimeric toxins in other genera such as Telescopus and Trimorphodon. All together, this suggests that the origin of these peculiar 3FTx is far earlier than was appreciated and their evolutionary history has been complex.
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Rey-Suárez P, Acosta C, Torres U, Saldarriaga-Córdoba M, Lomonte B, Núñez V. MipLAAO, a new L-amino acid oxidase from the redtail coral snake Micrurus mipartitus. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4924. [PMID: 29900074 PMCID: PMC5995095 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs) are ubiquitous enzymes in nature. Bioactivities described for these enzymes include apoptosis induction, edema formation, induction or inhibition of platelet aggregation, as well as antiviral, antiparasite, and antibacterial actions. With over 80 species, Micrurus snakes are the representatives of the Elapidae family in the New World. Although LAAOs in Micrurus venoms have been predicted by venom gland transcriptomic studies and detected in proteomic studies, no enzymes of this kind have been previously purified from their venoms. Earlier proteomic studies revealed that the venom of M. mipartitus from Colombia contains ∼4% of LAAO. This enzyme, here named MipLAAO, was isolated and biochemically and functionally characterized. The enzyme is found in monomeric form, with an isotope-averaged molecular mass of 59,100.6 Da, as determined by MALDI-TOF. Its oxidase activity shows substrate preference for hydrophobic amino acids, being optimal at pH 8.0. By nucleotide sequencing of venom gland cDNA of mRNA transcripts obtained from a single snake, six isoforms of MipLAAO with minor variations among them were retrieved. The deduced sequences present a mature chain of 483 amino acids, with a predicted pI of 8.9, and theoretical masses between 55,010.9 and 55,121.0 Da. The difference with experimentally observed mass is likely due to glycosylation, in agreement with the finding of three putative N-glycosylation sites in its amino acid sequence. A phylogenetic analysis of MmipLAAO placed this new enzyme within the clade of homologous proteins from elapid snakes, characterized by the conserved Serine at position 223, in contrast to LAAOs from viperids. MmipLAAO showed a potent bactericidal effect on S. aureus (MIC: 2 µg/mL), but not on E. coli. The former activity could be of interest to future studies assessing its potential as antimicrobial agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Rey-Suárez
- Programa de Ofidismo y Escorpionismo, Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y Alimentarias, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Cristian Acosta
- Programa de Ofidismo y Escorpionismo, Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y Alimentarias, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Uday Torres
- Programa de Ofidismo y Escorpionismo, Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y Alimentarias, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Mónica Saldarriaga-Córdoba
- Centro de Investigación en Recursos Naturales y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago de Chile, Chile
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Vitelbina Núñez
- Programa de Ofidismo y Escorpionismo, Facultad de Ciencias Farmacéuticas y Alimentarias, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia.,Escuela de Microbiología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
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