1
|
Wright I, Minshall G, Young N, Riggs C. Fractures in Thoroughbred racing and the potential for pre-race identification of horses at risk. Equine Vet J 2024; 56:424-436. [PMID: 38200406 DOI: 10.1111/evj.14046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Risk rates for and predisposing factors to fractures occurring in Thoroughbred racing that have been published in peer reviewed journals are documented. The potential for currently available techniques to identify horses at increased risk for fracture is discussed on the bases of principles, practicalities, advantages, disadvantages and current data. All are reviewed in light of justifiable decision making and importance of fractures to horseracing's social license.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ian Wright
- Newmarket Equine Referrals, Newmarket, Suffolk, UK
| | | | | | - Christopher Riggs
- Equine Welfare Research Foundation, The Hong Kong Jockey Club, Sha Tin Racecourse, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Palomino Lago E, Baird A, Blott SC, McPhail RE, Ross AC, Durward-Akhurst SA, Guest DJ. A Functional Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Upstream of the Collagen Type III Gene Is Associated with Catastrophic Fracture Risk in Thoroughbred Horses. Animals (Basel) 2023; 14:116. [PMID: 38200847 PMCID: PMC10778232 DOI: 10.3390/ani14010116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Fractures caused by bone overloading are a leading cause of euthanasia in Thoroughbred racehorses. The risk of fatal fracture has been shown to be influenced by both environmental and genetic factors but, to date, no specific genetic mechanisms underpinning fractures have been identified. In this study, we utilised a genome-wide polygenic risk score to establish an in vitro cell system to study bone gene regulation in horses at high and low genetic risk of fracture. Candidate gene expression analysis revealed differential expression of COL3A1 and STAT1 genes in osteoblasts derived from high- and low-risk horses. Whole-genome sequencing of two fracture cases and two control horses revealed a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) upstream of COL3A1 that was confirmed in a larger cohort to be significantly associated with fractures. Bioinformatics tools predicted that this SNP may impact the binding of the transcription factor SOX11. Gene modulation demonstrated SOX11 is upstream of COL3A1, and the region binds to nuclear proteins. Furthermore, luciferase assays demonstrated that the region containing the SNP has promoter activity. However, the specific effect of the SNP depends on the broader genetic background of the cells and suggests other factors may also be involved in regulating COL3A1 expression. In conclusion, we have identified a novel SNP that is significantly associated with fracture risk and provide new insights into the regulation of the COL3A1 gene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Esther Palomino Lago
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Services, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK; (E.P.L.); (A.C.R.)
| | - Arabella Baird
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Sarah C. Blott
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Nottingham LE12 5RD, UK;
| | - Rhona E. McPhail
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Amy C. Ross
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Services, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK; (E.P.L.); (A.C.R.)
| | - Sian A. Durward-Akhurst
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA;
| | - Deborah J. Guest
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Services, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK; (E.P.L.); (A.C.R.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
Thoroughbred horses have been selected for racing performance for more than 400 years. Despite continued selection, race times have not improved significantly during the past 60 years, raising the question of whether genetic variation for racing performance still exists. Studies using phenotypes such as race time, money earned, and handicapping, however, demonstrate that there is extensive variation within these traits and that they are heritable. Even so, these are poor measures of racing success since Thoroughbreds race at different ages and distances and on different types of tracks, and some may not race at all. With the advent of genomic tools, DNA variants are being identified that contribute to racing success. Aside from strong associations for myostatin variants with best racing distance, weak to modest associations with racing phenotypes are reported for other genomic regions. These data suggest that diverse genetic strategies have contributed to producing a successful racehorse, and genetic variation contributing to athleticism remains important. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Animal Biosciences, Volume 10 is February 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ernest Bailey
- MH Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA; ,
| | - Jessica L Petersen
- Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA;
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Taylor SE, Matika O, Lee S, Baker M, Watson KA. Study design synopsis: Omics studies of fractures in the horse - Which technology is best? Equine Vet J 2021; 53:1091-1093. [PMID: 34161618 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
5
|
Physick-Sheard P, Avison A, Sears W. Factors Associated with Mortality in Ontario Standardbred Racing: 2003-2015. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11041028. [PMID: 33916415 PMCID: PMC8066029 DOI: 10.3390/ani11041028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Racing provides employment and career engagement, is passionately pursued, and helps sustain our close relationship with horses, but it can also be associated with injury and losses. Fatalities occur on and off racetracks, involving welfare concerns, economic impact, and damage to racing’s public profile and social license. Musculoskeletal injury, the most visible loss, represents only one source and remains poorly understood, while for other losses and off-track mortality little is known. In 2003, the Province of Ontario, Canada introduced a registry for racehorse mortalities, providing opportunities to better understand losses and contributing factors. Following an earlier publication describing losses across all breeds, this paper presents analysis of standardbred mortality and relationships with routine management and competition. Results reveal that aspects of industry structure may contribute to mortality, and that the impact might be anticipated by close monitoring of a horse’s profile and performance. The immediate circumstances precipitating any specific fatality should be seen as separate from this underlying environmental liability. This has implications for how future research might be conducted and findings interpreted. It is hoped the present study can be used to decrease mortality and cumulative injury so as to reduce losses and strengthen societal support for racing. Abstract Factors associated with mortality in standardbred racehorses were assessed through a retrospective annualized cohort study of all-cause mortality from 2003–2015 (n = 978) (identified in the Ontario Racehorse Death Registry). Race and qualifying data for official work-events were also gathered (1,778,330 work-events, 125,200 horse years). Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed sex, age, and indices of workload and intensity and their interactions to be strongly associated with mortality. Track class, race versus qualifying performance, and work-event outcome (finish position, scratched, or failed to finish) also influenced mortality odds, which increased as performance slowed. Intense competition at higher performance levels and qualifying races at lower levels carried particularly high odds. Though occurring frequently, musculoskeletal injury was less frequent than all other presenting problems combined. Industry structure contributes to mortality through interaction between horse characteristics and the competition environment. This substrate may be amenable to management to minimize liability, but incident-specific triggers may represent chance factors and be relatively difficult to identify or control. Differentiating between substrate and trigger when studying specific clinical problems may provide greater clarity and yield in identifying underlying causes. Mortality may reflect a continuum of circumstances, cumulative impacts of which might be identified before a fatal event occurs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Physick-Sheard
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +519-824-4120 (ext. 54053)
| | - Amanda Avison
- DVM Program, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
| | - William Sears
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Use of Omics Data in Fracture Prediction; a Scoping and Systematic Review in Horses and Humans. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11040959. [PMID: 33808497 PMCID: PMC8065418 DOI: 10.3390/ani11040959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Despite many recent advances in imaging and epidemiological data analysis, musculoskeletal injuries continue to be a welfare issue in racehorses. Omics studies describe the study of protein, genetic material (both DNA and RNA, including microRNAs—small non-coding ribonucleic acids) and metabolites that may provide insights into the pathophysiology of disease or opportunities to monitor response to treatment when measured in bodily fluids. As these fields of study are scientifically complex and highly specialised, it is timely to perform a review of the current literature to allow for the design of robust studies that allow for repeatable work. Systematic reviews have been introduced into the medical literature and are a methodological way of searching for relevant papers followed by critical review of the content and a detection of biases. The objectives of the current systematic review were to identify and critically appraise the literature pertaining to microRNA (miRNA) and their target genes that are correlated with stress fractures in racehorses and humans. The object was to define a panel of miRNAs and their target genes as potential biomarkers in either horses or human subjects. The online scientific databases were searched and a reviewed was performed according to preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. MicroRNA profiling studies in horses continue to emerge, but as of yet, no miRNA profile can reliably predict the occurrence of fractures. It is very important that future studies are well designed to mitigate the effects of variation in sample size, exercise and normalisation methods. Abstract Despite many recent advances in imaging and epidemiological data analysis, musculoskeletal injuries continue to be a welfare issue in racehorses. Peptide biomarker studies have failed to consistently predict bone injury. Molecular profiling studies provide an opportunity to study equine musculoskeletal disease. A systematic review of the literature was performed using preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses protocols (PRISMA-P) guidelines to assess the use of miRNA profiling studies in equine and human musculoskeletal injuries. Data were extracted from 40 papers between 2008 and 2020. Three miRNA studies profiling equine musculoskeletal disease were identified, none of which related to equine stress fractures. Eleven papers studied miRNA profiles in osteoporotic human patients with fractures, but differentially expressed miRNAs were not consistent between studies. MicroRNA target prediction programmes also produced conflicting results between studies. Exercise affected miRNA profiles in both horse and human studies (e.g., miR-21 was upregulated by endurance exercise and miR-125b was downregulated by exercise). MicroRNA profiling studies in horses continue to emerge, but as yet, no miRNA profile can reliably predict the occurrence of fractures. It is very important that future studies are well designed to mitigate the effects of variation in sample size, exercise and normalisation methods.
Collapse
|
7
|
Page AE, Adam E, Arthur R, Barker V, Franklin F, Friedman R, Grande T, Hardy M, Howard B, Partridge E, Rutledge M, Scollay M, Stewart JC, Vale A, Horohov DW. Expression of select mRNA in Thoroughbreds with catastrophic racing injuries. Equine Vet J 2021; 54:63-73. [PMID: 33438228 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability to identify horses at risk for catastrophic injuries continues to be a pressing issue for the racing industry, especially given recent events in North America. OBJECTIVES Since most catastrophic injuries occur in areas of existing pathology and this pathology is likely to elicit an inflammatory response, it was hypothesised that analysis of messenger RNA (mRNA) expression would detect significant changes in select genes in horses at risk for a catastrophic injury. STUDY DESIGN Prospective cohort study. METHODS Five racing jurisdictions across the United States participated in this study. A total of 686 Tempus® RNA Blood Tube samples were collected for mRNA analysis from 107 catastrophically injured horses, as well as from noninjured horses sampled either prerace (n = 374) or postrace (n = 205). A subset of horses (n = 37) were sampled both prerace and postrace for analysis of expression changes during the postrace period. RESULTS Of 21 genes analysed via RT-qPCR, the expression of 12 genes (ALOX5AP, CD14, IL-10, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, MMP1, PTGS2, TLR4, TNFα, TNFSF13B and VEGFA) changed significantly within 45 minutes after a race and were excluded. Of the remaining nine genes (BMP-2, IGF-1, IL1RN, MMP2, MMP9, Osteoprotegrin, RANKL, SAA1 and TGFβ), three genes (IGF-1, IL1RN and MMP2) were found to be significantly different between catastrophically injured and noninjured horses using multiple logistic regression modelling. Receiver operating characteristic analysis of models, which included mRNA expression, demonstrated sensitivities from 76%-82% (95% CI: 67%-93%) and specificities from 84%-88% (95% CI: 71%-94%) at the Youden Index. MAIN LIMITATIONS Samples were collected as soon as possible postinjury (within 30 minutes). CONCLUSIONS Analysis of mRNA expression of specific genes in the future may be considered as an economical, accessible and noninvasive means by which horses at risk for catastrophic injury can be identified.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Allen E Page
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Emma Adam
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Rick Arthur
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Virginia Barker
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | | | - Ron Friedman
- Washington Horse Racing Commission, Olympia, WA, USA
| | | | - Michael Hardy
- Indiana Grand Racing and Casino, Shelbyville, IN, USA
| | - Bruce Howard
- Kentucky Horse Racing Commission, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Emma Partridge
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Matthew Rutledge
- Department of Statistics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Mary Scollay
- Kentucky Horse Racing Commission, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - John C Stewart
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Alina Vale
- California Horse Racing Board, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - David W Horohov
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Leg weakness (LW) issues are a great concern for pig breeding industry. And it also has a serious impact on animal welfare. To dissect the genetic architecture of limb-and-hoof firmness in commercial pigs, a genome-wide association study was conducted on bone mineral density (BMD) in three sow populations, including Duroc, Landrace and Yorkshire. The BMD data were obtained by ultrasound technology from 812 pigs (including Duroc 115, Landrace 243 and Yorkshire 454). In addition, all pigs were genotyped using genome-by-sequencing and a total of 224 162 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were obtained. After quality control, 218 141 SNPs were used for subsequent genome-wide association analysis. Nine significant associations were identified on chromosomes 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12 and 18 that passed Bonferroni correction threshold of 0.05/(total SNP numbers). The most significant locus that associated with BMD (P value = 1.92e-14) was detected at approximately 41.7 Mb on SSC6 (SSC stands for Sus scrofa chromosome). CUL7, PTK7, SRF, VEGFA, RHEB, PRKAR1A and TPO that are located near the lead SNP of significant loci were highlighted as functionally plausible candidate genes for sow limb-and-hoof firmness. Moreover, we also applied a new method to measure the BMD data of pigs by ultrasound technology. The results provide an insight into the genetic architecture of LW and can also help to improve animal welfare in pigs.
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
Orthopedic diseases are a common cause for limited exercise capacity in the horse. They often underlie genetic risk factors, which can affect bone, articular cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and adnexal structures among others. The genetic effects can directly interfere with tissue development and skeletal growth or can trigger degenerative or inflammatory processes. Many of these diseases of the locomotor system like osteochondrosis are complex and can be affected by multifactorial influences. For this reason, it is important for those performing diagnostic procedures to have a comprehensive knowledge of orthopedic diseases, their prevalence within breeds, and genetic background.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Metzger
- Institute for Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17p, Hannover 30559, Germany.
| | - Ottmar Distl
- Institute for Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Buenteweg 17p, Hannover 30559, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Campbell MLH, McNamee MJ. Ethics, Genetic Technologies and Equine Sports: The Prospect of Regulation of a Modified Therapeutic Use Exemption Policy. SPORT ETHICS AND PHILOSOPHY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/17511321.2020.1737204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. L. H Campbell
- Department of Production and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, South Mymms, UK
| | - M. J. McNamee
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
- Faculty of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Tozaki T, Kusano K, Ishikawa Y, Kushiro A, Nomura M, Kikuchi M, Kakoi H, Hirota K, Miyake T, Hill EW, Nagata S. A candidate-SNP retrospective cohort study for fracture risk in Japanese Thoroughbred racehorses. Anim Genet 2019; 51:43-50. [PMID: 31612520 DOI: 10.1111/age.12866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Fractures are medical conditions that compromise the athletic potential of horses and/or the safety of jockeys. Therefore, the reduction of fracture risk is an important horse and human welfare issue. The present study used molecular genetic approaches to determine the effect of genetic risk for fracture at four candidate SNPs spanning the myostatin (MSTN) gene on horse chromosome 18. Among the 3706 Japanese Thoroughbred racehorses, 1089 (29.4%) had experienced fractures in their athletic life, indicating the common occurrence of this injury in Thoroughbreds. In the case/control association study, fractures of the carpus (carpal bones and distal radius) were statistically associated with g.65809482T/C (P = 1.17 x 10-8 ), g.65868604G/T (P = 2.66 x 10-9 ), and g.66493737C/T (P = 6.41 x 10-8 ). In the retrospective cohort study using 1710 racehorses born in 2000, the relative risk (RR) was highest for male horses at g.65868604G/T, based on the dominant allele risk model (RR = 2.251, 95% confidence interval 1.407-3.604, P = 0.00041), and for female horses at g.65868604G/T, based on the recessive allele risk model (RR = 2.313, 95% confidence interval 1.380-3.877, P = 0.00163). Considering the association of these SNPs with racing performance traits such as speed, these genotypes may affect the occurrence of carpus fractures in Japanese Thoroughbred racehorses as a consequence of the non-genetic influence of the genotype on the distance and/or intensity of racing and training. The genetic information presented here may contribute to the development of strategic training programs and racing plans for racehorses that improve their health and welfare.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Tozaki
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2 Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, 320-0851, Japan
| | - K Kusano
- Equine Department, Japan Racing Association, Minato, Tokyo, 106-8401, Japan
| | - Y Ishikawa
- Racehorse Hospital Ritto Training Center, Japan Racing Association, Ritto, Shiga, 520-3005, Japan
| | - A Kushiro
- Racehorse Hospital Miho Training Center, Japan Racing Association, Miho, Ibaraki, 300-0493, Japan
| | - M Nomura
- Racehorse Hospital Ritto Training Center, Japan Racing Association, Ritto, Shiga, 520-3005, Japan
| | - M Kikuchi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2 Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, 320-0851, Japan
| | - H Kakoi
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2 Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, 320-0851, Japan
| | - K Hirota
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2 Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, 320-0851, Japan
| | - T Miyake
- Comparative Agricultural Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - E W Hill
- School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, 4, Ireland.,Plusvital Ltd, The Highline, Dun Laoghaire Industrial Estate, Pottery Road, Dun Laoghaire, Co Dublin, Ireland
| | - S Nagata
- Genetic Analysis Department, Laboratory of Racing Chemistry, 1731-2 Tsurutamachi, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, 320-0851, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Bellone RR, Ocampo NR, Hughes SS, Le V, Arthur R, Finno CJ, Penedo MCT. Warmblood fragile foal syndrome type 1 mutation (PLOD1 c.2032G>A) is not associated with catastrophic breakdown and has a low allele frequency in the Thoroughbred breed. Equine Vet J 2019; 52:411-414. [PMID: 31502696 PMCID: PMC7062577 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Background Catastrophic fractures are among the most common cause of fatalities in racehorses. Several factors, including genetics, likely contribute to increased risk for fatal injuries. A variant in the procollagen‐lysine, 2‐oxoglutarate 5‐dioxygenase1 gene (PLOD1 c.2032G>A) was shown to cause Warmblood fragile foal syndrome type 1 (WFFS), a fatal recessive defect of the connective tissue. Screening of multiple horse breeds identified the presence of the WFFS allele in the Thoroughbred. PLOD1 is involved in cross‐linking of collagen fibrils and thus could potentially increase the risk of catastrophic breakdown. Objectives Estimate the frequency of the WFFS allele (PLOD1 c.2032G>A) and determine if it is a risk factor for catastrophic breakdown in the Thoroughbred. Study design Case–control genetic study. Methods Genomic DNA from hair and/or tissue samples was genotyped for the WFFS allele. Fisher’s Exact tests were performed to compare allele and carrier frequencies between the case cohort (catastrophic breakdown, n = 22) and several cohorts with no record of injury (n = 138 raced/trained at same track and season and n = 185 older than 7 years and raced during same season), nonracers (n = 92), and a random sample without consideration for racing history (n = 279). Results The frequency of the PLOD1 c.2032G>A variant in the Thoroughbred breed is low (1.2%). Seventeen of 716 Thoroughbreds tested were carriers (2.4%) and no WFFS homozygotes were detected. Only one catastrophic breakdown case carried the WFFS allele. No statistically significant difference in allele or carrier frequency was identified between case and control cohorts (P>0.05 in all comparisons performed). Main limitations This study evaluated cases from one single track. Conclusions This study demonstrated that the PLOD1 c.2032G>A associated with WFFS is present at very low frequency in Thoroughbreds and is not a genetic risk factor for catastrophic breakdown.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R R Bellone
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA.,Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - N R Ocampo
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - S S Hughes
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - V Le
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - R Arthur
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - C J Finno
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - M C T Penedo
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Raudsepp T, Finno CJ, Bellone RR, Petersen JL. Ten years of the horse reference genome: insights into equine biology, domestication and population dynamics in the post-genome era. Anim Genet 2019; 50:569-597. [PMID: 31568563 PMCID: PMC6825885 DOI: 10.1111/age.12857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The horse reference genome from the Thoroughbred mare Twilight has been available for a decade and, together with advances in genomics technologies, has led to unparalleled developments in equine genomics. At the core of this progress is the continuing improvement of the quality, contiguity and completeness of the reference genome, and its functional annotation. Recent achievements include the release of the next version of the reference genome (EquCab3.0) and generation of a reference sequence for the Y chromosome. Horse satellite‐free centromeres provide unique models for mammalian centromere research. Despite extremely low genetic diversity of the Y chromosome, it has been possible to trace patrilines of breeds and pedigrees and show that Y variation was lost in the past approximately 2300 years owing to selective breeding. The high‐quality reference genome has led to the development of three different SNP arrays and WGSs of almost 2000 modern individual horses. The collection of WGS of hundreds of ancient horses is unique and not available for any other domestic species. These tools and resources have led to global population studies dissecting the natural history of the species and genetic makeup and ancestry of modern breeds. Most importantly, the available tools and resources, together with the discovery of functional elements, are dissecting molecular causes of a growing number of Mendelian and complex traits. The improved understanding of molecular underpinnings of various traits continues to benefit the health and performance of the horse whereas also serving as a model for complex disease across species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Raudsepp
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Research, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - C J Finno
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - R R Bellone
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.,School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - J L Petersen
- Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 68583-0908, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Tozaki T, Miyake T, Kikuchi M, Kakoi H, Hirota K, Kusano K, Ishikawa Y, Nomura M, Kushiro A, Nagata S. Heritability estimates of fractures in Japanese Thoroughbred racehorses using a non‐linear model. J Anim Breed Genet 2019; 136:199-204. [DOI: 10.1111/jbg.12387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Teruaki Tozaki
- Genetic Analysis Department Laboratory of Racing Chemistry Utsunomiya Japan
| | - Takeshi Miyake
- Comparative Agricultural Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University Kyoto Japan
| | - Mio Kikuchi
- Genetic Analysis Department Laboratory of Racing Chemistry Utsunomiya Japan
| | - Hironaga Kakoi
- Genetic Analysis Department Laboratory of Racing Chemistry Utsunomiya Japan
| | - Kei‐ichi Hirota
- Genetic Analysis Department Laboratory of Racing Chemistry Utsunomiya Japan
| | | | - Yuhiro Ishikawa
- Racehorse Hospital Ritto Training Center Japan Racing Association Shiga Japan
| | - Motoi Nomura
- Racehorse Hospital Ritto Training Center Japan Racing Association Shiga Japan
| | - Asuka Kushiro
- Racehorse Hospital Miho Training Center Japan Racing Association Ibaraki Japan
| | - Shun‐ichi Nagata
- Genetic Analysis Department Laboratory of Racing Chemistry Utsunomiya Japan
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Burns EN, Bordbari MH, Mienaltowski MJ, Affolter VK, Barro MV, Gianino F, Gianino G, Giulotto E, Kalbfleisch TS, Katzman SA, Lassaline M, Leeb T, Mack M, Müller EJ, MacLeod JN, Ming-Whitfield B, Alanis CR, Raudsepp T, Scott E, Vig S, Zhou H, Petersen JL, Bellone RR, Finno CJ. Generation of an equine biobank to be used for Functional Annotation of Animal Genomes project. Anim Genet 2018; 49:564-570. [PMID: 30311254 DOI: 10.1111/age.12717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The Functional Annotation of Animal Genomes (FAANG) project aims to identify genomic regulatory elements in both sexes across multiple stages of development in domesticated animals. This study represents the first stage of the FAANG project for the horse, Equus caballus. A biobank of 80 tissue samples, two cell lines and six body fluids was created from two adult Thoroughbred mares. Ante-mortem assessments included full physical examinations, lameness, ophthalmologic and neurologic evaluations. Complete blood counts and serum biochemistries were also performed. At necropsy, in addition to tissue samples, aliquots of serum, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) plasma, heparinized plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, urine and microbiome samples from all regions of the gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts were collected. Epidermal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts were cultured from skin samples. All tissues were grossly and histologically evaluated by a board-certified veterinary pathologist. The results of the clinical and pathological evaluations identified subclinical eosinophilic and lymphocytic infiltration throughout the length of the gastrointestinal tract as well as a mild clinical lameness in both animals. Each sample was cryo-preserved in multiple ways, and nuclei were extracted from selected tissues. These samples represent the first published systemically healthy equine-specific biobank with extensive clinical phenotyping ante- and post-mortem. The tissues in the biobank are intended for community-wide use in the functional annotation of the equine genome. The use of the biobank will improve the quality of the reference annotation and allow all equine researchers to elucidate unknown genomic and epigenomic causes of disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E N Burns
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - M H Bordbari
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - M J Mienaltowski
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - V K Affolter
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - M V Barro
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - F Gianino
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - G Gianino
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - E Giulotto
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, via Ferrata 1, Pavia, I-27100, Italy
| | - T S Kalbfleisch
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, 40292, USA
| | - S A Katzman
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - M Lassaline
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - T Leeb
- Institute of Genetics, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, 3001, Switzerland
| | - M Mack
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - E J Müller
- Department of Biomedical Research, Molecular Dermatology and Stem Cell Research, Institute of Animal Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, 3001, Switzerland.,Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, 3001, Switzerland
| | - J N MacLeod
- Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA
| | - B Ming-Whitfield
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - C R Alanis
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - T Raudsepp
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77845, USA
| | - E Scott
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - S Vig
- Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - H Zhou
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - J L Petersen
- Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68583, USA
| | - R R Bellone
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.,Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - C J Finno
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Baird A, Lindsay T, Everett A, Iyemere V, Paterson YZ, McClellan A, Henson FMD, Guest DJ. Osteoblast differentiation of equine induced pluripotent stem cells. Biol Open 2018; 7:bio.033514. [PMID: 29685993 PMCID: PMC5992527 DOI: 10.1242/bio.033514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone fractures occur in horses following traumatic and non-traumatic (bone overloading) events. They can be difficult to treat due to the need for the horse to bear weight on all legs during the healing period. Regenerative medicine to improve fracture union and recovery could significantly improve horse welfare. Equine induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have previously been derived. Here we show that equine iPSCs cultured for 21 days in osteogenic induction media on an OsteoAssay surface upregulate the expression of osteoblast associated genes and proteins, including COL1A1, SPARC, SPP1, IBSP, RUNX2 and BGALP. We also demonstrate that iPSC-osteoblasts are able to produce a mineralised matrix with both calcium and hydroxyapatite deposition. Alkaline phosphatase activity is also significantly increased during osteoblast differentiation. Although the genetic background of the iPSC donor animal affects the level of differentiation observed after 21 days of differentiation, less variation between lines of iPSCs derived from the same horse was observed. The successful, direct, differentiation of equine iPSCs into osteoblasts may provide a source of cells for future regenerative medicine strategies to improve fracture repair in horses undergoing surgery. iPSC-derived osteoblasts will also provide a potential tool to study equine bone development and disease. Summary: Horse iPSCs can be turned directly into bone forming cells but the efficiency is affected by the donor horse. Less variability is observed using different iPSC lines derived from the same horse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arabella Baird
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Timothy Lindsay
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK.,Division of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Alice Everett
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Valentine Iyemere
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Yasmin Z Paterson
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK.,Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Alyce McClellan
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Frances M D Henson
- Division of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK.,Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Deborah J Guest
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Obaid AY, Sabir JSM, Atef A, Liu X, Edris S, El-Domyati FM, Mutwakil MZ, Gadalla NO, Hajrah NH, Al-Kordy MA, Hall N, Bahieldin A, Jansen RK. Analysis of transcriptional response to heat stress in Rhazya stricta. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 16:252. [PMID: 27842501 PMCID: PMC5109689 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-016-0938-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Climate change is predicted to be a serious threat to agriculture due to the need for crops to be able to tolerate increased heat stress. Desert plants have already adapted to high levels of heat stress so they make excellent systems for identifying genes involved in thermotolerance. Rhazya stricta is an evergreen shrub that is native to extremely hot regions across Western and South Asia, making it an excellent system for examining plant responses to heat stress. Transcriptomes of apical and mature leaves of R. stricta were analyzed at different temperatures during several time points of the day to detect heat response mechanisms that might confer thermotolerance and protection of the plant photosynthetic apparatus. RESULTS Biological pathways that were crosstalking during the day involved the biosynthesis of several heat stress-related compounds, including soluble sugars, polyols, secondary metabolites, phenolics and methionine. Highly downregulated leaf transcripts at the hottest time of the day (40-42.4 °C) included genes encoding cyclin, cytochrome p450/secologanin synthase and U-box containing proteins, while upregulated, abundant transcripts included genes encoding heat shock proteins (HSPs), chaperones, UDP-glycosyltransferase, aquaporins and protein transparent testa 12. The upregulation of transcripts encoding HSPs, chaperones and UDP-glucosyltransferase and downregulation of transcripts encoding U-box containing proteins likely contributed to thermotolerance in R. stricta leaf by correcting protein folding and preventing protein degradation. Transcription factors that may regulate expression of genes encoding HSPs and chaperones under heat stress included HSFA2 to 4, AP2-EREBP and WRKY27. CONCLUSION This study contributed new insights into the regulatory mechanisms of thermotolerance in the wild plant species R. stricta, an arid land, perennial evergreen shrub common in the Arabian Peninsula and Indian subcontinent. Enzymes from several pathways are interacting in the biosynthesis of soluble sugars, polyols, secondary metabolites, phenolics and methionine and are the primary contributors to thermotolerance in this species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah Y. Obaid
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
| | - Jamal S. M. Sabir
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Atef
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
| | - Xuan Liu
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZB UK
| | - Sherif Edris
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
- Princess Al-Jawhara Al-Brahim Centre of Excellence in Research of Hereditary Disorders (PACER-HD), Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fotouh M. El-Domyati
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohammed Z. Mutwakil
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
| | - Nour O. Gadalla
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
- Genetics and Cytology Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Division, National Research Center, Dokki, Egypt
| | - Nahid H. Hajrah
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
| | - Magdy A. Al-Kordy
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
- Genetics and Cytology Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Division, National Research Center, Dokki, Egypt
| | - Neil Hall
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZB UK
| | - Ahmed Bahieldin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Robert K. Jansen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University (KAU), P.O. Box 80141, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712 USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Tranquille CA, Murray RC, Parkin TDH. Can we use subchondral bone thickness on high‐field magnetic resonance images to identify Thoroughbred racehorses at risk of catastrophic lateral condylar fracture? Equine Vet J 2016; 49:167-171. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.12574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. A. Tranquille
- Centre for Equine Studies Animal Health Trust Newmarket Suffolk UK
| | - R. C. Murray
- Centre for Equine Studies Animal Health Trust Newmarket Suffolk UK
| | - T. D. H. Parkin
- School of Veterinary Medicine College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences Weiper's Centre Equine Hospital University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Genetic regulation of bone strength: a review of animal model studies. BONEKEY REPORTS 2015; 4:714. [PMID: 26157577 DOI: 10.1038/bonekey.2015.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Population- and family-based studies have established that fragility fracture risk is heritable; yet, the genome-wide association studies published to date have only accounted for a small fraction of the known variation for fracture risk of either the femur or the lumbar spine. Much work has been carried out using animal models toward finding genetic loci that are associated with bone strength. Studies using animal models overcome some of the issues associated with using patient data, but caution is needed when interpreting the results. In this review, we examine the types of tests that have been used for forward genetics mapping in animal models to identify loci and/or genes that regulate bone strength and discuss the limitations of these test methods. In addition, we present a summary of the quantitative trait loci that have been mapped for bone strength in mice, rats and chickens. The majority of these loci co-map with loci for bone size and/or geometry and thus likely dictate strength via modulating bone size. Differences in bone matrix composition have been demonstrated when comparing inbred strains of mice, and these matrix differences may be associated with differences in bone strength. However, additional work is needed to identify loci that act on bone strength at the materials level.
Collapse
|