Caregiver-reported adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV infected children in Mekelle, Ethiopia

Fixed-dose antiretroviral combinations in children living with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1): a systematic review

Fixed-Dose antiretroviral Combinations (FDCs) are the most used drug regimes in adult patients with human-immunodeficiency virus 1 infection, since they increase adherence to antiretroviral therapy and enable good quality of life. The European AIDS Clinical Society guidelines recommend the use of FDCs in paediatrics. However, the use of FDCs in paediatric population is restricted since studies in children and adolescents are mostly conducted in small sample sizes and are heterogeneous in settings and design. This systematic review aims to summarize the current knowledge about the use of FDCs in paediatric population, highlighting the relevant outcomes regarding efficacy and effectiveness, adherence, safety, and adverse events of these regimens.

Thirteen-year viral suppression and immunologic recovery of LPV/r-based regimens in pediatric HIV treatment: a multicenter cohort study in resource-constrained settings of China

Background

Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) in children remains challenging due to resource-constrained settings. We conducted a 13-year, prospective, multicenter cohort study on the effectiveness and safety of LPV/r-based regimens in ART-naive and ART-experienced children.

Methods

From January 2008 to May 2021, children living with HIV-1 were recruited with LPV/r-based regimens from 8 clinical research sites in 6 provinces in China. Effectiveness outcomes were virologic failure (defined as at least two consecutive measurements of VL > 200 copies/mL after 6 months of ART) and immune response (defined as CD4% recovered to more than 25% after 12 months of treatment). The safety outcomes were treatment-related grade 2-4 adverse events and abnormal laboratory test results.

Results

A total of 345 ART-naïve children and 113 ART-experienced children were included in this cohort study. The median follow-up time was 7.3 (IQR 5.5-10.5) years. The incidence density of virologic failure was 4.1 (95% CI 3.3-4.9) per 100 person-years in ART-naïve children and 5.0 (95% CI 3.5-6.5) per 100 person-years in ART-experienced children. Kaplan Meyer (KM) curve analysis showed children with ART experience were at a higher risk of virologic failure (p < 0.05). The risk factors of virologic failure in ART-naïve children were clinic setting in rural hospitals (aHR = 2.251, 1.108-4.575), annual missed dose times >5 days of LPV intake (aHR = 1.889, 1.004-3.554); The risk factor of virologic failure in ART-experienced children was missed dose times >5 days (aHR = 2.689, 1.299-5.604) and mother as caregivers for ART administration (aHR = 0.475, 0.238-0.948). However, during long-term treatment, viral suppression rates between ART-naïve and ART-experienced children remained similar. No significant differences were observed in the immune response, treatment-related grade 2-4 events, and abnormal laboratory test results between ART-naïve children and ART-experienced children.

Conclusion

Our research underscores that with consistent, long-term treatment of LPV/r-based regimens, ART-experienced children can achieve therapeutic outcomes comparable to ART-naïve children. It provides crucial insights on LPV/r-based regimens in pediatric HIV treatment, especially in resource-limited settings where high-cost Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitors (INSTs) are inaccessible. This evidence-based understanding provides an essential addition to the global therapeutic strategies for pediatric HIV treatment.

Magnitude and associated factors of anti-retroviral therapy adherence among children attending HIV care and treatment clinics in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Introduction

The HIV pandemic continues to contribute significantly towards childhood mortality and morbidity. The up-scaling of the Anti-retroviral therapy (ART) access has seen more children surviving and sanctions great effort be made on ensuring adherence. Adherence is a dynamic process that changes over time and is determined by variable factors. This necessitates the urgency to conduct studies to determine the potential factors affecting adherence in our setting and therefore achieve the 90-90-90 goal of sustainable viral suppression.

Objectives

To assess the magnitude and associated factors of ART adherence among children (1–14 years) attending HIV care and treatment clinics during the months of July to November 2018 in Dar es Salaam.

Methods

A cross-sectional clinic-based study, conducted in three selected HIV care and treatment clinics in urban Dar es Salaam; Muhimbili National Hospital (MNH), Temeke Regional Referral Hospital (TRRH), Infectious Disease Centre- DarDar Paediatric Program (IDC-DPP) HIV clinics during the months of July to November 2018. HIV-infected children aged 1–14 years who had been on treatment for at least six months were consecutively enrolled until the sample size was achieved. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Four-day self-report, one-month self-recall report and missed clinic appointments were used to assess adherence. Frequencies and percentages were used to describe categorical data. The odds ratio was used to analyse the possible factors affecting ART adherence Logistic regression models were used to determine the factors associated with ART adherence. Analysis was conducted using SPSS version 20.0 and p-value <0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Results

333 participants were recruited. The overall good adherence (≥95%) was approximated to be 60% (CI-54.3–65.1) when subjected to all three measures. On multivariable logistic regression, factors associated with higher odds of poor adherence were found to be caregivers aged 17–25 years [AOR = 3.5, 95%CI-(1.5–8.4)], children having an inter-current illness [AOR = 10.8, 95%CI-(2.3–50.4)], disbelief in ART effectiveness [AOR = 5.495; 95%CI-(1.669–18.182)] and advanced clinical stage [AOR = 1.972; 95% CI-(1.119–3.484)]. The major reasons reported by caregivers for missing medications included forgetfulness (41%), high pill burden (21%), busy schedule (11%) and long waiting hours at the clinic (9%).

Conclusion and recommendations

In the urban setting of Dar es Salaam, ART adherence among children was found to be relatively low when combined adherence measures were used. Factors associated with poor ART adherence found were younger aged caregivers, and child intercurrent illness, while factors conferring good adherence were belief in ART effectiveness and lower HIV clinical stage. More attention and support should be given to younger aged caregivers, children with concomitant illness and advanced HIV clinical stages. Educating caregivers on ART effectiveness may also aid in improving adherence.

Assessment of adherence to anti-tuberculosis treatment and predictors for non-adherence among the caregivers of children with tuberculosis

BACKGROUND

Information on the extent of patient medication adherence and the use of interventions to advance adherence are scarce in clinical practice. This study aimed to assess medication adherence and risk factors for non-adherence among the caregivers of children with tuberculosis (TB).

METHODS

This prospective study was conducted among the caregivers of 443 child TB patients registered during the study. Caregivers of children were queried using a structured questionnaire consisting of sociodemographic and socio-economic factors and the role of healthcare workers during the treatment course. Risk factors for non-adherence were estimated using a logistic regression model.

RESULTS

In multivariate analysis, the independent variables that had a statistically significant positive association with non-adherence were male sex (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 5.870 [95% confidence interval {CI} 1.99 to 17.29]), age ≥45 y (AOR 5.627 [95% CI 1.88 to 16.82]), caregivers with no formal education (AOR 3.905 [95% CI 1.29 to 11.79]), financial barriers (AOR 30.297 [95% CI 6.13 to 149.54]), insufficient counselling by healthcare workers (AOR 5.319 [95% CI 1.62 to 17.42]), insufficient counselling by health professionals (AOR 4.117 [95% CI 1.05 to 16.05]) and unfriendly attitude and poor support from healthcare professionals (AOR 11.150 [95% CI 1.91 to 65.10]).

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment adherence in the present study was 86% using the Morisky Green Levine Medication Adherence Scale and 90.7% using the visual analogue scale tool. Predictors of non-adherence need to be a focus and caregivers should be given complete knowledge about the importance of adherence to TB treatment.

Drug resistance in HIV-infected children living in rural South Africa: Implications of an antiretroviral therapy initiated during the first year of life

INTRODUCTION

Management of antiretroviral-drug resistance in HIV-infected children is a global health concern. We compared the long-term virological outcomes of two cohorts of children living in a rural setting of South Africa. The first cohort initiated treatment before one year and the second after two years of age. The aim of this study was to describe the long-term consequences of early treatment initiation in terms of viral load and drug-resistance.

METHODS

This retrospective study was conducted at the Edendale Hospital located in a peri-urban area of KwaZulu-Natal. Children were included during their planned appointment. Drug resistance was assessed genotypically on proviral DNA.

RESULTS

From the 161 children included in this study, 93 samples were successfully genotyped. Both cohorts had comparable viral loads, but children treated early more often presented NRTI or NNRTI mutations, while there was no difference for PI mutations rates.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment was highly effective when comparing virological outcomes in both early- and late-treated cohorts. The persistence of NNRTI mutations could lead to treatment failures in children older than 3 years initiating their therapy with a NNRTI, or for those switching from a PI to NNRTI based regimen. The accumulation of NRTI mutations may lead to a functional PI monotherapy and consequently to viral escape. To promote access to HIV genotyping in resource-limited settings is challenging but essential to avoid inappropriate therapy switches in case of virological failure, and to adapt national treatment guidelines in line with the epidemiology of resistance.

[Access to the management of HIV infected children: Overview of the healthcare supply in Cameroon in 2014]

BACKGROUND

In Cameroon in 2012, the proportion (15%) of children eligible for antiretroviral treatment (ART) was one of the lowest among the 21 Global Fund priority countries. The objective of this study was to carry out a situational analysis of the existing care offer for pediatric HIV in Cameroon.

METHODS

A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted over a 4-month period (April to August 2014) in 12 healthcare facilities in 7 regions of Cameroon selected by systematic sampling. The data were collected in a self-administered questionnaire filled out by the caregiving and administrative personnel included in the study.

RESULTS

All in all, 142 persons in charge of pediatric HIV treatment were included in the study, of whom 115 were working at the operational level: 59 (51.2%) health personnel, 44 (38.3%) community agents and 12 (10.4%) department heads; the other 27 exercised responsibilities at the regional (19) and the local (8) levels. An overwhelming majority of the caregivers involved in pediatric VIH treatment were nurses, a factor necessitating the delegation of medical tasks institutionalized in Cameroon. Few standardized nationwide documents take into account these treatment modalities. Inadequate dissemination of the documents at all levels of the healthcare pyramid may justify the non-compliance with the care protocols that has been observed in the training programs dedicated to the subject.

CONCLUSION

The updating and large-scale dissemination of standardized nationwide documents taking into account the specificities of HIV-infected children are required to improve implementation at the operational level of the Cameroonian healthcare system of the existing guidelines for pediatric HIV treatment.

Factors affecting adherence to treatment in children living with HIV

Background:

With the successful introduction of ART, the life expectancy of children living with HIV (CLHIV) is substantially increased. However, strict compliance is a necessary step to begin with as noncompliance is again associated with its own demerits of incomplete suppression and decreasing the overall survival of the patients.

Aims:

The aim of this study was to measure factors associated with adherence to ART among CLHIV.

Materials and Methods:

This is a 1-year follow-up study conducted from November 2012 to December 2013. A total of 171 children between 18 months and 15 years living with HIV and on ART attending the two ART centers of Delhi were enrolled in the study. Adherence and factors affecting adherence were obtained from the study participants using a semi-structured interview schedule.

Statistical Analysis Used:

Collected data were transformed into variables and analyzed into SPSS. All observations were in terms of mean, median, standard deviations, percentages, and proportions. Tests of significance such as Chi-square test and t-test were applied wherever required.

Results:

In nearly 89% of the study participants, adherence to ART was ≥95% at the end of the study. The most common reason for nonadherence was forgetfulness (59%), and 57% of the parents/caretakers were facing monetary problems. Long distance, greater duration to reach center, and unavailability of the parents/caretakers were also quoted as problems.

Conclusion:

Adherence is genesis to successful treatment outcome and is strongly associated with availability of support by their parents/caretakers. Professional help along with guidance and encouragement is required not only at the caretaker level but also to the family as a whole.

Practices of Care to HIV-Infected Children: Current Situation in Cameroon

Background:

To accelerate access to pediatric HIV care in Cameroon, operational challenges in implementing HIV pediatric care need to be identified. The aim of this study was to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of health care workers regarding pediatric HIV infection in Cameroon.

Methods:

A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted over a 4-month period (April to August 2014) in 12 health facilities in 7 regions of Cameroon selected using systematic random sampling. Data were collected from interviews with health care providers and managers using standardized self-administered questionnaires and stored in the ACCESS software.

Results:

In total, 103 health care providers were included in this study, of which 59 (57.3%) were health workers and 44 (42.7%) community agents. Most of the health workers in charge of HIV pediatric care were nurses, requiring effective medical task shifting that was institutionalized in Cameroon. The knowledge of health care providers in relation to pediatric HIV care was acceptable. Indications for prescription of test for early infant diagnosis were known (96.1%), but their attitudes and practices regarding initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) in infants less than 2 years (5.2%) and first-line ART protocols (25.4%) were insufficient, due to little information about standard procedures.

Conclusion:

Capacity building of health care providers and large-scale dissemination of normative national documents are imperative to improve HIV pediatric care in the health care facilities.

High prevalence of non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy among undisclosed HIV-infected children in Ghana

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) remains one of the greatest obstacles in pediatric HIV care. We sought to determine the prevalence of adherence to ART among undisclosed HIV-infected children and adolescents in Ghana. We analyzed baseline data from HIV-infected children and adolescents aged 7-18 years old enrolled in the SANKOFA Pediatric HIV disclosure intervention study in Ghana. Antiretroviral medication adherence was measured using caregiver 3-day recall; child 3-day recall; and pharmacy records for antiretroviral time-to-refill. Four hundred and twenty child-caregiver dyads were enrolled from January 2013 to June 2016. The median adherence (interquartile range), as measured by time-to-refill, was 93.2% (68.0%-100.0%). However, only 47.5% of children had ≥95% adherence ("good adherence") using time-to-refill data. Children of caregivers who had received secondary or higher level of education versus no school (aOR, 2.90, 95% Confidence Interval, CI 1.29-6.56), p = 0.010) or elementary education only (aOR, 2.20, CI, 1.24-3.88, p = 0.007) were more likely to have "good adherence" (≥95%). In this cohort of children unaware of their HIV positive status, median ART adherence rate was sub-optimal (by World Health Organization definition) while 38% had poor adherence (<85%).

Low HIV viral suppression rates following the intensive adherence counseling (IAC) program for children and adolescents with viral failure in public health facilities in Uganda

Background

The UNAIDS 90–90-90 strategy clearly stipulates that 90% of all people on antiretroviral therapy (ART) should have a suppressed viral load. Intensified adherence counselling (IAC) was recently recommended by WHO to improve viral suppression among ART-treated paediatric and adolescent clients with virological failure. This paper describes the implementation and outcomes of IAC in the first year of implementation in a public ART program, to inform strategic interventions to reach the “third 90” among children.

Methods

A retrospective chart review was conducted for all children aged 9 months to 19 years with HIV viral loads (VL) ≥ 1000 copies/ml at 15 public health facilities from June 2015–December 2016. Data on initial VL test results, IAC sessions, repeat VL test results, and ART regimen switch were abstracted and analysed for completion of IAC and viral suppression after IAC.

Results

A total of 449 children had a detectable viral load above 1000 copies/ml, after an average of 3.5 years (SD 5.8) years of ART. 192 (43%) were 10–20 years of age, and 320 (71%) were receiving Nevirapine-based ART regimen. Out of 345 (77%) who completed the recommended three IAC sessions, 62 (23%) achieved viral suppression following IAC. The mean time from 1st to 3rd IAC session was 113 (SD 153) days and 172 (50%) of the children had completed the three sessions within 200 days.

Conclusion

Suppression rates were low among ART-treated children with virological failure that completed the recommended three IAC sessions. As we move towards having 90% of ART-treated children and adolescents achieve and maintain viral suppression, there is need to re-evaluate the implementation of IAC among children and adolescents to consider both psychosocial and biological factors such as resistance testing for those with multiple detectable viral loads.

Adherence to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy Among Children in Ethiopia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is the mainstay of the strategy in reducing morbidity and mortality of HIV-infected children. Different primary studies were conducted in Ethiopia. Thus, we aimed to conduct a meta-analysis of the national prevalence of optimal adherence to HAART in children. In addition, associated factors of HAART adherence were reviewed. A weighted inverse variance random-effects model was applied. The 88.7 and 93.7% of children were adhering to HAART at 07 and 03 days prior to an interview respectively. The subgroup analysis showed that HAART adherence was 93.4% in Amhara, 90.1% in Addis Ababa and 87.3% in Tigray at 07 days prior to an interview. Our study suggests that, within short window reported time, adherence to HAART in Ethiopian children may be in a good progress. Emphasis on specific adherence interventions need further based on individual predictors to improve overall HAART adherence of children.

Magnitude of cytopenias among HIV-infected children in Bahir Dar, northwest Ethiopia: a comparison of HAART-naïve and HAART-experienced children

Background

AIDS, caused by HIV, is a multisystem disease that affects hematopoiesis. The aim of this study was to assess cytopenias among HIV-infected children who had a follow-up at Felege Hiwot Referral Hospital, Bahir Dar, northwest Ethiopia.

Methods

An institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted between April and May 2013. Systematic random sampling method was used to select the study participants. Descriptive statistics, independent t-test as well as chi-square and logistic regression were used for analysis. A p-value <0.05 was considered as statistically significant.

Results

A total of 224 children (112 highly active antiretroviral therapy [HAART]-naïve and 112 HAART-experienced) participated in the study. The magnitude of anemia, thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, leukopenia and pancytopenia among HAART-naïve HIV-infected children were 30.4%, 9.8%, 8%, 4.5% and 1.8%, respectively. The overall prevalence of anemia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia and pancytopenia were 29.5%, 8.9%, 8%, 4.5% and 1.4%, respectively. Cluster of differentiation-4 percentage and mean corpuscular volume were significantly different between HAART-experienced and HAART-naïve children. Being of younger age and severely immunosuppressed were risk factors of anemia.

Conclusion

Anemia was the most common cytopenia, followed by neutropenia. Severe immunosuppression and younger age were significantly associated with anemia. Therefore, emphasis should be given for investigation and management of cytopenias in HIV-infected children, particularly for those who are immunosuppressed and of younger age.

Assessing Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy in a Rural Paediatric Cohort in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Achieving optimal adherence to ARV's in a rural paediatric population is challenging. Monitoring adherence by frequent viral load assay is not always feasible or sustainable in rural communities. A relatively cheaper, reliable, valid and sustainable measure of adherence for children is required for routine management. This study retrospectively assessed adherence outcomes using monthly pill count and viral load data, including reasons reported for non-adherence, in a paediatric cohort in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Between 2008 and 2013, 78 children, mean age of 7.1 years, were enrolled in the CAPRISA 052 AIDS Treatment Programme. Monthly treatment adherence by pill count was categorized as either high (≥95 %) or low (<95 %). Overall median monthly adherence to treatment by pill count was 87.8 % at month 6, 88.9 % at month 12 and 90.8 % at month 24. However, the proportion of children with an undetectable viral load (<400 copies/ml) was 84.0 % (63/74), 86.6 % (58/67), and 84.5 % (49/58) at the three time points respectively. Agreement between pill count and viral load showed that only 33.9, 36. 3 and 30.6 % of children were truly adherent by pill count at months 6, 12 and 24 respectively. In conclusion, this treatment programme demonstrated that adherence of >95 % by pill count is not an ideal indicator of virological suppression in children aged 6 months to 13 years. Viral load assessment remains the gold standard for assessing treatment success in this age group.