Oleamide activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) in vitro

Effects of dietary palmitic acid and oleic acid ratio on milk production, nutrient digestibility, blood metabolites, and milk fatty acid profile of lactating dairy cows

Adequate energy supply is a crucial factor for maintaining the production performance in cows during the early lactation period. Adding fatty acids (FA) to diets can improve energy supply, and the effect could be related to the chain length and degree of saturation of those FA. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of different ratios of palmitic acid (C16:0) to oleic acid (cis-9 C18:1) on the production performance, nutrient digestibility, blood metabolites, and milk FA profile in early lactation dairy cows. Seventy-two multiparous Holstein cows (63.5 ± 2.61 days in milk) blocked by parity (2.39 ± 0.20), body weight (668.3 ± 20.1 kg), body condition score (3.29 ± 0.06), and milk yield (47.9 ± 1.63 kg) were used in a completely randomized design. Cows were divided into 3 groups with 24 cows in each group. Cows in the 3 treatment groups were provided iso-energy and iso-nitrogen diets, but the C16:0 to cis-9 C18:1 ratios were different: (1) 90.9% C16:0 + 9.1% cis-9 C18:1 (90.9:9.1); (2) 79.5% C16:0 + 20.5% cis-9 C18:1 (79.5:20.5); and (3) 72.7% C16:0 + 27.3% cis-9 C18:1 (72.7:27.3). Fatty acids were added at 1.3% on a dry matter basis. Although the dry matter intake fat-corrected milk yield and energy-corrected milk yield were not affected, the milk yield, milk protein yield, and feed efficiency increased linearly with increasing cis-9 C18:1 ratio. The milk protein percentage and milk fat yield did not differ among treatments, whereas the milk fat percentage tended to decrease linearly with the increasing cis-9 C18:1 ratio. The lactose yield increased linearly and lactose percentage tended to increase linearly with increasing cis-9 C18:1 ratio, but the percentage of milk total solids and somatic cell count decreased linearly. Although body condition scores were not affected by treatments, body weight loss decreased linearly with increasing cis-9 C18:1 ratio. The effect of treatment on nutrient digestibility was limited, except for a linear increase in ether extract and neutral detergent fiber digestibility with increasing cis-9 C18:1 ratio. There was a linear increase in the concentration of plasma glucose, but the triglyceride and nonesterified FA concentrations decreased linearly with increasing cis-9 C18:1 ratio. As the cis-9 C18:1 ratio increased, the concentration of de novo FA decreased quadratically, but the mixed and preformed fatty acids increased linearly. In conclusion, increasing cis-9 C18:1 ratio could increase production performance and decrease body weight loss by increasing nutrient digestibility, and the ratio that had the most powerful beneficial effect on early lactation cows was 72.7:27.3 (C16:0 to cis-9 C18:1).

Fatty acid amides present in Camembert cheese improved cognitive decline after oral administration in mice

Herein, we investigated the effects of Camembert cheese (CC) and its fatty acid contents on cognitive function in mice by employing the object recognition test to evaluate hippocampus-dependent memory. Orally administered CC improved the cognitive decline induced by a high-fat diet. Next, we focused on myristamide (MA), oleamide, and stearamide, which are fatty acid amides produced during the fermentation process of CC. We found that oral administration of MA improved cognitive decline. Notably, an improvement was not observed using myristic acid, a free fatty acid that is not amidated. Thus, fatty acid amidation may contribute to the physiological activity. Moreover, we investigated changes in gene expression related to neurogenesis in the hippocampus. After MA administration, mRNA expression analysis indicated that MA increased hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression.

Plasma membrane lipid composition and metabolomics analysis of Yorkshire boar sperms with high and low resistance to cryopreservation

The resistance of sperm to freezing varies widely among boars. The semen ejaculate of different boars can be grouped into poor freezability ejaculate (PFE) and good freezability ejaculate (GFE). In this study, five Yorkshire boars each of the GFE and PFE were selected by comparing the changes in sperm motility before and after cryopreservation. Firstly, we found that the sperm plasma membrane of the PFE group showed weak integrity after PI and 6-CFDA staining. Then the electron microscopy results verified that the plasma membrane condition of all segments of GFE was better than that of PFE segments. Furthermore, the lipid composition of sperm plasma membranes in GPE and PFE sperm was analyzed by using mass spectrometry, and 15 lipids showed differences between the two groups. Among those lipids, only phosphatidylcholine (PC) (14:0/20:4) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) (14:0/20:4) were higher in PFE. The remaining lipid contents, including those of dihydroceramide (18:0/18:0), four hexosylceramides (18:1/20:1, 18:0/22:1, 18:1/16:0, 18:1/18:0), lactosylceramide (18:1/16:0), two hemolyzed phosphatidylethanolamines (18:2, 20:2), five phosphatidylcholines (16:1/18:2, 18:2/16:1, 14:0/20:4, 16:0/18:3, 18:1/20:2), and two phosphatidylethanolamines (14:0/20:4, 18:1/18:3), were all positively correlated with resistance to cryopreservation (p < 0.05, r > 0.6). Moreover, we analyzed the metabolic profile of sperm using untarget metabolomic. KEGG annotation analysis revealed that the altered metabolites were mainly involved in fatty acid biosynthesis. Finally, we determined that the contents of oleic acid, oleamideetc, N8-acetylspermidine etc., were different between GFE and PFE sperm. In summary, the different lipid metabolism levels and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in plasma membrane may be key factors contributing to differences in sperm resistance to cryopreservation among boars.

Oleamide Reduces Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Toxicity in Rat Cortical Slices Through the Combined Action of Cannabinoid Receptors Activation and Induction of Antioxidant Activity

The potential treatment of neurodegenerative disorders requires the development of novel pharmacological strategies at the experimental level, such as the endocannabinoid-based therapies. The effects of oleamide (OEA), a fatty acid primary amide with activity on cannabinoid receptors, was tested against mitochondrial toxicity induced by the electron transport chain complex II inhibitor, 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP), in rat cortical slices. OEA prevented the 3-NP-induced loss of mitochondrial function/cell viability at a concentration range of 5 nM-25 µM, and this protective effect was observed only when the amide was administered as pretreatment, but not as post-treatment. The preservation of mitochondrial function/cell viability induced by OEA in the toxic model induced by 3-NP was lost when the slices were pre-incubated with the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) selective inhibitor, AM281, or the cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2R) selective inhibitor, JTE-907. The 3-NP-induced inhibition of succinate dehydrogenase (mitochondrial Complex II) activity was recovered by 25 nM OEA. The amide also prevented the increased lipid peroxidation and the changes in reduced/oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSG) ratio induced by 3-NP. The cell damage induced by 3-NP, assessed as incorporation of cellular propidium iodide, was mitigated by OEA. Our novel findings suggest that the neuroprotective properties displayed by OEA during the early stages of damage to cortical cells involve the converging activation of CB1R and CB2R and the increase in antioxidant activity, which combined may emerge from the preservation of the functional integrity of mitochondria.

Effects of dietary supplementation of different levels of vitamin B12 on the liver metabolism of laying hens

BACKGROUND

Vitamin B₁₂ plays an important role in lipid, protein, carbohydrate and nucleic acid metabolism. We investigated the effect of supplementing layers' diets with different vitamin B₁₂ levels on liver metabolism using a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based metabolomic approach to observe and analyse wide-target metabolomics in the liver.

RESULTS

We assigned hens to three groups, namely blank control group without vitamin B₁₂ diet (BCG), normal control group with 25 μg kg^-1 vitamin B₁₂ (NCG) and vitamin B₁₂ supplement group I with 100 μg kg^-1 vitamin (VBSG I). The VBSG I group layers had higher (P < 0.05) vitamin B₁₂ concentration than those from other groups. The egg yolk vitamin B₁₂ concentration increased (P < 0.01) with the increasing vitamin B₁₂ dietary supplemental level. Between the NCG versus BCG, VBSG I versus BCG, and VBSG I versus NCG groups, 11, 20 and 11 metabolites were significantly changed, respectively. The KEGG pathway of vitamin B₆ metabolism was significantly impacted in the NCG layers than those from BCG; seven and five pathways were significantly impacted in the VBSG I layers compared with those from BCG and NCG, including pyrimidine metabolism, vitamin B₆ metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism, etc. CONCLUSION: We concluded that 25 μg kg^-1 vitamin B₁₂ supplementation in corn-soybean meal-based layer diet increased the egg yolk vitamin B₁₂ concentration and impacted the vitamin B₆ metabolic pathway, and 100 μg kg^-1 of it increased the egg yolk and liver vitamin B₁₂ concentrations and impacted vitamin B₆ , lipid, nucleic acid and amino acid metabolic pathways. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Cannabinoids and PPAR Ligands: The Future in Treatment of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Women with Obesity and Reduced Fertility

Cannabinoids (CBs) are used to treat chronic pain, chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, and multiple sclerosis spasticity. Recently, the medicinal use of CBs has attracted increasing interest as a new therapeutic in many diseases. Data indicate a correlation between CBs and PPARs via diverse mechanisms. Both the endocannabinoid system (ECS) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) may play a significant role in PCOS and PCOS related disorders, especially in disturbances of glucose-lipid metabolism as well as in obesity and fertility. Taking into consideration the ubiquity of PCOS in the human population, it seems indispensable to search for new potential therapeutic targets for this condition. The aim of this review is to examine the relationship between metabolic disturbances and obesity in PCOS pathology. We discuss current and future therapeutic interventions for PCOS and related disorders, with emphasis on the metabolic pathways related to PCOS pathophysiology. The link between the ECS and PPARs is a promising new target for PCOS, and we examine this relationship in depth.

Modulatory role of the endocannabinoidome in the pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal tract

Originating from Eastern Asia, the plant Cannabis sativa has been used for centuries as a medicinal treatment. The unwanted psychotropic effects of one of its major components, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol, discouraged its therapeutic employment until, recently, the discovery of cannabinoids receptors and their endogenous ligands endocannabinoids reignited the interest. The endocannabinoid system has lately been found to play an important role in the maintenance of human health, both centrally and peripherally. However, the initial idea of the endocannabinoid system structure has been quickly understood to be too simplistic and, as new receptors, mediators, and enzymes have been discovered to participate in a complex relationship, the new, more comprehensive term "expanded endocannabinoid system" or "endocannabinoidome", has taken over. The discovery of other endocannabinoid-like receptors, such as the G protein-coupled receptor 119 and G protein-coupled receptor 55, has opened the way to the development of potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of various metabolic disorders. In addition, recent findings have also provided evidence suggesting the potential therapeutic link between the endocannabinoidome and various inflammatory-based gut diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease and cancer. This review will provide an introduction to the endocannabinoidome, focusing on its modulatory role in the gastrointestinal tract and on the interest generated by the link between gut microbiota, the endocannabinoid system and metabolic diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, type-2 diabetes and obesity. In addition, we will look at the potential novel aspects and benefits of drugs targeting the endocannabinoid system.

The Endocannabinoid System and PPARs: Focus on Their Signalling Crosstalk, Action and Transcriptional Regulation

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are a family of nuclear receptors including PPARα, PPARγ, and PPARβ/δ, acting as transcription factors to regulate the expression of a plethora of target genes involved in metabolism, immune reaction, cell differentiation, and a variety of other cellular changes and adaptive responses. PPARs are activated by a large number of both endogenous and exogenous lipid molecules, including phyto- and endo-cannabinoids, as well as endocannabinoid-like compounds. In this view, they can be considered an extension of the endocannabinoid system. Besides being directly activated by cannabinoids, PPARs are also indirectly modulated by receptors and enzymes regulating the activity and metabolism of endocannabinoids, and, vice versa, the expression of these receptors and enzymes may be regulated by PPARs. In this review, we provide an overview of the crosstalk between cannabinoids and PPARs, and the importance of their reciprocal regulation and modulation by common ligands, including those belonging to the extended endocannabinoid system (or "endocannabinoidome") in the control of major physiological and pathophysiological functions.

Bovine Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase 1 Promotes Adipogenesis by Activating the PPARγ Receptor

Stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) is a rate-limiting enzyme that mainly catalyzes the saturated fatty acids (SFAs) into the monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs). The expression level of SCD1 is positively correlated with the marbling score. However, the functional mechanism of SCD1 in adipogenesis is still unclear. In this study, we identified SCD1 as highly expressed in subcutaneous and visceral fat, peaking at 2 days after differentiation in bovine stromal vascular fraction (SVF) cells. When the SCD1 was overexpressed in bovine SVF cells, lipid droplets accumulation was increased from 142.46 ± 21.77 to 254.89 ± 11.75 μg/mg (P < 0.01). Further, the expression levels of FABP4, FASN, and ACCα were increased (P < 0.01), while the expression of PPARγ or C/EBPα was not changed at mRNA or protein level (P > 0.05). Dual-luciferase reporter assay showed that the activity of the PPARγ receptor was enhanced by 3.69 times (P < 0.01). Moreover, the contents of palmitoleate (C16:1) and oleate (C18:1) were significantly increased (P < 0.05). Furthermore, 100 μM exogenous oleate increased the lipid accumulation by 22.28 times (P < 0.01). These results suggest that oleate is probably a strong ligand of the PPARγ receptor to enhance adipogenesis.

Oleamide Induces Cell Death in Glioblastoma RG2 Cells by a Cannabinoid Receptor-Independent Mechanism

The endocannabinoid system has been associated with antiproliferative effects in several types of tumors through cannabinoid receptor-mediated cell death mechanisms. Oleamide (ODA) is a CB1/CB2 agonist associated with cell growth and migration by adhesion and/or ionic signals associated with Gap junctions. Antiproliferative mechanisms related to ODA remain unknown. In this work, we evaluated the effects of ODA on cell viability and morphological changes in a rat RG2 glioblastoma cell line and compared these effects with primary astrocyte cultures from 8-day postnatal rats. RG2 and primary astrocyte cultures were treated with ODA at increasing concentrations (25, 50, 100, and 200 μM) for different periods of time (12, 24, and 48 h). Changes in RG2 cell viability and morphology induced by ODA were assessed by viability/mitochondrial activity test and phase contrast microscopy, respectively. The ratios of necrotic and apoptotic cell death, and cell cycle alterations, were evaluated by flow cytometry. The roles of CB1 and CB2 receptors on ODA-induced changes were explored with specific receptor antagonists. ODA (100 μM) induced somatic damage, detachment of somatic bodies, cytoplasmic polarization, and somatic shrinkage in RG2 cells at 24 and 48 h. In contrast, primary astrocytes treated at the same ODA concentrations exhibited cell aggregation but not cell damage. ODA (100 μM) increased apoptotic cell death and cell arrest in the G1 phase at 24 h in the RG2 line. The effects induced by ODA on cell viability of RG2 cells were independent of CB1 and CB2 receptors or changes in intracellular calcium transient. Results of this novel study suggest that ODA exerts specific antiproliferative effects on RG2 glioblastoma cells through unconventional apoptotic mechanisms not involving canonical signals.

Protective Mechanism of Acacia saligna Butanol Extract and Its Nano-Formulations against Ulcerative Colitis in Rats as Revealed via Biochemical and Metabolomic Assays

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a relapsing inflammatory disease of unknown etiology. The increased risk of cancer in UC patients warrants for the development of novel drug treatments. Herein, this work concerns with the investigation of the protective effects of Acacia saligna butanol extract (ASBE) and its nanoformulations on UC in a rat model and its underlying mechanism. Colitis was induced by slow intrarectal infusion of 2 mL of 4% (v/v in 0.9% saline) acetic acid. Colon samples were evaluated macroscopically, microscopically, and assayed for pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. To monitor associated metabolic changes in acetic acid-induced UC model, serum samples were analyzed for primary metabolites using GC–MS followed by multivariate data analyses. Treatment with ASBE attenuated acetic acid-induced UC as revealed by reduction of colon weight, ulcer area, and ulcer index. ASBE treatment also reduced Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) & Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) levels in the inflamed colon. The nano-formulation of ASBE showed better protection than the crude extract against ulcer indices, increased PGE2 production, and histopathological alterations such as intestinal mucosal lesions and inflammatory infiltration. Distinct metabolite changes were recorded in colitis rats including a decrease in oleamide and arachidonic acid along with increased levels of lactic acid, fructose, and pyroglutamic acid. Treatment with nano extract restored metabolite levels to normal and suggests that cytokine levels were regulated by nano extract in UC. Conclusion: ASBE nano extract mitigated against acetic acid-induced colitis in rats, and the underlying mechanism could be attributed to the modulatory effects of ASBE on the inflammatory cascades. The applicability of metabolomics developed in this rat model seems to be crucial for evaluating the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of new therapeutics for acute colitis.

Novel Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone Analogue Inhibits Adipogenic Differentiation of Human Adipose-Derived Stem Cells through the Nrf2 Pathway

Obesity, characterized by excess lipid accumulation, has emerged as a leading public health problem. Excessive, adipocyte-induced lipid accumulation raises the risk of metabolic disorders. Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) are mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) that can be obtained from abundant adipose tissue. High fat mass could be caused by an increase in the size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia) of adipocytes. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in the adipogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs). Lowering the level of ROS is important to blocking or retarding the adipogenic differentiation of hASCs. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor that mediates various antioxidant enzymes and regulates cellular ROS levels. Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone (NHDC), widely used as artificial sweetener, has been shown to have significant free radical scavenging activity. In the present study, (E)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)prop-2-en-1-one (CTP), a novel NHDC analogue, was synthesized and examined to determine whether it could inhibit adipogenic differentiation. The inhibition of adipogenic differentiation in hASCs was tested using NHDC and CTP. In the CTP group, reduced Oil Red O staining was observed compared with the differentiation group. CTP treatment also downregulated the expression of PPAR-γ and C/EBP-α, adipogenic differentiation markers in hASCs, compared to the adipogenic differentiation group. The expression of FAS and SREBP-1 decreased in the CTP group, along with the fluorescent intensity (amount) of ROS. Expression of the Nrf2 protein was slightly decreased in the differentiation group. Meanwhile, in both the NHDC and CTP groups, Nrf2 expression was restored to the level of the control group. Moreover, the expression of HO-1 and NQO-1 increased significantly in the CTP group. Taken together, these results suggest that CTP treatment suppresses the adipogenic differentiation of hASCs by decreasing intracellular ROS, possibly through activation of the Nrf2 cytoprotective pathway. Thus, the use of bioactive substances such as CTP, which activates Nrf2 to reduce the cellular level of ROS and inhibit the adipogenic differentiation of hASCs, could be a new strategy for overcoming obesity.

The Role of Nuclear Hormone Receptors in Cannabinoid Function

Since the early 2000s, evidence has been accumulating that most cannabinoid compounds interact with the nuclear hormone family peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). This can be through direct binding of these compounds to PPARs, metabolism of cannabinoid to other PPAR-activating chemicals, or indirect activation of PPAR through cell signaling pathways. Delivery of cannabinoids to the nucleus may be facilitated by fatty acid-binding proteins and carrier proteins. All PPAR isoforms appear to be activated by cannabinoids, but the majority of evidence is for PPARα and γ. To date, little is known about the potential interaction of cannabinoids with other nuclear hormones. At least some (but not all) of the well-known biological actions of cannabinoids including neuroprotection, antiinflammatory action, and analgesic effects are partly mediated by PPAR-activation, often in combination with activation of the more traditional target sites of action. This has been best investigated for the endocannabinoid-like compounds palmitoylethanolamide and oleoylethanolamine acting at PPARα, and for phytocannabinoids or their derivatives activation acting at PPARγ. However, there are still many aspects of cannabinoid activation of PPAR and the role it plays in the biological and therapeutic effects of cannabinoids that remain to be investigated.

Effects of Phytoestrogen Extracts Isolated from Elder Flower on Hormone Production and Receptor Expression of Trophoblast Tumor Cells JEG-3 and BeWo, as well as MCF7 Breast Cancer Cells

Hereinwe investigated the effect of elderflower extracts (EFE) and of enterolactone/enterodiol on hormone production and proliferation of trophoblast tumor cell lines JEG-3 and BeWo, as well as MCF7 breast cancer cells. The EFE was analyzed by mass spectrometry. Cells were incubated with various concentrations of EFE. Untreated cells served as controls. Supernatants were tested for estradiol production with an ELISA method. Furthermore, the effect of the EFE on ER/ER/PR expression was assessed by immunocytochemistry. EFE contains a substantial amount of lignans. Estradiol production was inhibited in all cells in a concentration-dependent manner. EFE upregulated ER in JEG-3 cell lines. In MCF7 cells, a significant ER downregulation and PR upregulation were observed. The control substances enterolactone and enterodiol in contrast inhibited the expression of both ER and of PR in MCF7 cells. In addition, the production of estradiol was upregulated in BeWo and MCF7 cells in a concentration dependent manner. The downregulating effect of EFE on ER expression and the upregulation of the PR expression in MFC-7 cells are promising results. Therefore, additional unknown substances might be responsible for ER downregulation and PR upregulation. These findings suggest potential use of EFE in breast cancer prevention and/or treatment and warrant further investigation.

An update on PPAR activation by cannabinoids

Some cannabinoids activate the different isoforms of PPARs (α, β and γ), as shown through the use of reporter gene assays, binding studies, selective antagonists and knockout studies. Activation of all isoforms, but primarily PPARα and γ, mediates some (but not all) of the analgesic, neuroprotective, neuronal function modulation, anti-inflammatory, metabolic, anti-tumour, gastrointestinal and cardiovascular effects of some cannabinoids, often in conjunction with activation of the more traditional target sites of action such as the cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors and the TRPV1 ion channel. PPARs also mediate some of the effects of inhibitors of endocannabinoid degradation or transport. Cannabinoids may be chaperoned to the PPARs by fatty acid binding proteins. The aims of this review are to update the evidence supporting PPAR activation by cannabinoids and to review the physiological responses to cannabinoids that are mediated, and not mediated, by PPAR activation.

Antiallergic Activity of Ethanol Extracts of Arctium lappa L. Undried Roots and Its Active Compound, Oleamide, in Regulating FcεRI-Mediated and MAPK Signaling in RBL-2H3 Cells

The antiallergic potential of Arctium lappa L. was investigated in Sprague-Dawley rats, ICR mice, and RBL-2H3 cells. Ethanol extract (90%) of A. lappa (ALE, 100 μg/mL) inhibited the degranulation rate by 52.9%, determined by the level of β-hexosaminidase. ALE suppressed passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) in rats and attenuated anaphylaxis and histamine release in mice. To identify the active compound of ALE, we subsequently fractionated and determined the level of β-hexosaminidase in all subfractions. Oleamide was identified as an active compound of ALE, which attenuated the secretion of histamine and the production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin-4 (IL-4) in cells treated with compound 48/80 or A23187/phorbol myristate acetate (PMA). Oleamide suppressed FcεRI-tyrosine kinase Lyn-mediated pathway, c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK/SAPK), and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38-MAPKs). These results showed that ALE and oleamide attenuated allergic reactions and should serve as a platform to search for compounds with antiallergic activity.

Preventive effects of a fermented dairy product against Alzheimer's disease and identification of a novel oleamide with enhanced microglial phagocytosis and anti-inflammatory activity

Despite the ever-increasing number of patients with dementia worldwide, fundamental therapeutic approaches to this condition have not been established. Epidemiological studies suggest that intake of fermented dairy products prevents cognitive decline in the elderly. However, the active compounds responsible for the effect remain to be elucidated. The present study aims to elucidate the preventive effects of dairy products on Alzheimer’s disease and to identify the responsible component. Here, in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease (5xFAD), intake of a dairy product fermented with Penicillium candidum had preventive effects on the disease by reducing the accumulation of amyloid β (Aβ) and hippocampal inflammation (TNF-α and MIP-1α production), and enhancing hippocampal neurotrophic factors (BDNF and GDNF). A search for preventive substances in the fermented dairy product identified oleamide as a novel dual-active component that enhanced microglial Aβ phagocytosis and anti-inflammatory activity towards LPS stimulation in vitro and in vivo. During the fermentation, oleamide was synthesized from oleic acid, which is an abundant component of general dairy products owing to lipase enzymatic amidation. The present study has demonstrated the preventive effect of dairy products on Alzheimer’s disease, which was previously reported only epidemiologically. Moreover, oleamide has been identified as an active component of dairy products that is considered to reduce Aβ accumulation via enhanced microglial phagocytosis, and to suppress microglial inflammation after Aβ deposition. Because fermented dairy products such as camembert cheese are easy to ingest safely as a daily meal, their consumption might represent a preventive strategy for dementia.

PTEN, Longevity and Age-Related Diseases

Since the discovery of PTEN, this protein has been shown to be an effective suppressor of cancer and a contributor to longevity. This report will review, in depth, the associations between PTEN and other molecules, its mutations and regulations in order to present how PTEN can be used to increase longevity. This report will collect recent research of PTEN and use this to discuss PTEN’s role in caloric restriction, antioxidative defense of DNA-damage and the role it plays in suppressing tumors. The report will also discuss that variety of ways that PTEN can be compromised, through mutations, complete loss of alleles and its main antagonist, the PI3K/AKT pathway.

Inhibition of FAAH and activation of PPAR: new approaches to the treatment of cognitive dysfunction and drug addiction

Enhancing the effects of endogenously-released cannabinoid ligands in the brain might provide therapeutic effects more safely and effectively than administering drugs that act directly at the cannabinoid receptor. Inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) prevent the breakdown of endogenous ligands for cannabinoid receptors and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR), prolonging and enhancing the effects of these ligands when they are naturally released. This review considers recent research on the effects of FAAH inhibitors and PPAR activators in animal models of addiction and cognition (specifically learning and memory). These studies show that FAAH inhibitors can produce potentially therapeutic effects, some through cannabinoid receptors and some through PPAR. These effects include enhancing certain forms of learning, counteracting the rewarding effects of nicotine and alcohol, relieving symptoms of withdrawal from cannabis and other drugs, and protecting against relapse-like reinstatement of drug self-administration. Since FAAH inhibition might have a wide range of therapeutic actions but might also share some of the adverse effects of cannabis, it is noteworthy that at least one FAAH-inhibiting drug (URB597) has been found to have potentially beneficial effects but no indication of liability for abuse or dependence. Although these areas of research are new, the preliminary evidence indicates that they might lead to improved therapeutic interventions and a better understanding of the brain mechanisms underlying addiction and memory.