Surgical strategies for treatment of malignant pancreatic tumors: extended, standard or local surgery?

Should we be reluctant to perform pancreatectomy in patients with chronic liver disease? A single center 10-year experience

PURPOSE

Many studies have shown extra-hepatic surgery in patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) with or without portal hypertension can result in complications. The aim of this study was to analyze the results of major pancreatectomy in patients with CLD including cirrhosis and to evaluate their efficacy and safety.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed 319 patients undergoing open pancreatoduodenectomy (PD) or distal pancreatectomy (DP) in our center. Those who received PD and DP in patients without CLD were classified into groups A and D, and those with CLD into groups B and C, respectively. Group B and C were subdivided into groups 1 and 2 according to the presence of portal hypertension.

RESULTS

Forty-three patients (13.5%) had CLD. Of the 221 patients who received PD, 25 had CLD. Of the 98 patients who received DP, 18 (Group C) had CLD. In the PD group, patients with portal hypertension (group B1) had longer operative time. However, the transfusion rate and complication rate were not significantly different from other groups. There was no mortality in patients with CLD without portal hypertension (group B2) and the complication and mortality rate was comparable to patients with normal liver function (group A). In the DP group, the transfusion rate, complication rate and mortality rate were significantly higher in patients with portal hypertension (group C1).

CONCLUSIONS

Acceptable outcomes were obtainable following pancreatic surgery in cirrhotic, non-portal hypertensive patients with surgical outcomes equivalent to non-cirrhotic patients.

AbbreviationsCLDchronic liver diseasePDpancreaticoduodenectomyDPdistal pancreatectomy.

Intention to treat outcomes among patients with pancreatic cancer treated using International Study Group on Pancreatic Surgery recommended pathways for resectable and borderline resectable disease

BACKGROUND

The International Study Group on Pancreatic Surgery recommends upfront surgery for resectable pancreatic cancer or borderline resectable-venous (BR-V) disease and neoadjuvant therapy (NAT) among those with arterial involvement (BR-A or locally advanced, LA). Though neoadjuvant therapy (NAT) is a promising strategy, outcomes are rarely reported on intention-to-treat (ITT) basis. This study presents ITT outcomes where pathways to surgery were in line with International Study Group on Pancreatic Surgery guidelines.

METHODS

Patients recommended for potentially curative treatment with PDAC between 2012 and 2017 (n = 345) were classified as resectable, BR-A/BR-V or LA, according to NCCN criteria. The primary outcome was overall survival. Secondary outcomes were resection rates, positive margins and toxicity among patients receiving NAT.

RESULTS

At surgery, the resection rates were 78% (172/221), 65% (35/54) and 54% (21/39) for those with resectable, BR-V and BR-A/LA disease, respectively (P < 0.0001). The median survival of those resected in the BR-A/LA cohort was 31 months. However, on an ITT basis, there was no significant difference in survival between resectable, BR-V and BR-A/LA disease (median: 19 versus 15 versus 19 months; P = 0.585). On review, some 31 (44%) patients of the BR-A/LA cohort either did not receive or did not complete NAT.

CONCLUSION

To realize benefits of NAT, more patients need to complete NAT and to undergo resection. Upfront resection for BR-V disease is associated with equivalent outcomes to upfront surgery for resectable disease or NAT for BR-A/LA disease. Strategies to increase the proportion of patients who complete NAT and undergo resection are needed.

Hepatic artery reconstruction after extended resection for borderline resectable pancreatic head cancer: A case report

Pancreatic head cancer is frequently associated with invasion of the surrounding vascular structures, such cases being considered for a long period of time as unresectable. Improvement of the vascular surgery techniques allowed association of extended vascular resections and reconstructions, increasing in this way the percentage of patients benefiting from radical surgery. We present the case of a 47-year-old male patient with no significant medical history diagnosed with a large pancreatic head tumor invading the common and proper hepatic artery as well as the portal vein. The venous reconstruction was performed using a synthetic prosthesis while the left hepatic artery was sutured to the left gastric artery; meanwhile the right hepatic artery was reconstructed using the splenic artery. In conclusion, extended hepatic artery resection followed by arterial reconstruction in association with portal vein resection and prosthetic replacement might be needed in cases presenting large pancreatic head tumors with vascular invasion.

What to expect with major vascular reconstruction during Whipple procedures: a single institution experience and literature review

Background

Major vascular reconstruction during a pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD), also known as a Whipple procedure, leads to controversial postoperative outcomes compared to conventional Whipple. Discussion with the patient regarding postoperative expectations is a crucial component of holistic surgical healthcare. The aim of this study was to report our 8-year experience of Whipple procedures involving vascular reconstruction and to review relevant literature to further evaluate expectant outcomes, therefore leading to more accurate discussion.

Methods

A retrospective review of patients undergoing Whipple procedures from January 2010, through December 2017 was performed. Patch, graft, and primary anastomosis during Whipple procedures were considered major vascular reconstruction. Literature on the current understanding of the outcomes associated with vascular reconstruction during Whipple procedures was reviewed.

Results

Twenty-nine from a total of 405 patients that met inclusion criteria had a Whipple procedure that involved major vascular reconstruction. Twelve patients were male and 17 were female (mean age, 65.2 years). Median hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) stay [range] of patients with vascular reconstruction was 12 [5-92] days and 3 [0-59] days, respectively. Thirty-day survival and 1-year survival of patients with vascular reconstruction was 93.1% and 55.2%, respectively, compared to non-vascular reconstruction patients 96.0% and 83.5%, respectively (P=0.35, P<0.001). Ninety-day readmission for vascular reconstruction patients was 31.0% compared to 14.6% in non-vascular reconstruction patients (P=0.03). The 1-year survival of those who had patch reconstruction, graft reconstruction, and primary anastomosis was 50.0%, 62.5%, 53.8%, respectively.

Conclusions

Compared to conventional Whipple procedures, those requiring major vascular reconstruction are associated with decreased survival. When vascular reconstruction is a valid option patients should be well aware of the associated outcomes.

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for pancreatic cancer: Effects on cancer tissue and novel perspectives

Chemotherapy for pancreatic cancer has diversified following the addition of more treatment regimens; however, in spite of this, pancreatic cancer remains a fatal disease. Preoperative (neoadjuvant) chemotherapy (NAC) or neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy (NACRT) has been developed and implemented. For patients with borderline resectable pancreatic cancer (BRPC) and locally advanced pancreatic cancer (LAPC), a number of clinical trials have been conducted; NACRT was demonstrated to improve resectability, R0 resection rate, overall survival rate, disease-free survival rate and even an LAPC and BRPC survival advantage over NAC. However, from the knowledge obtained from resected specimens following preoperative treatment, residual pancreatic cancer tissues following NAC are rich in chemoresistant cancer stem-like cells and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers. Conversely, metformin, angiotensin receptor blocker, statins and low-dose paclitaxel are well-known as drugs that inhibit EMT, which is associated with cancer stem cell-like characteristics. Although clinical effectiveness is unlikely to be achieved using one of these as an anticancer agent, it is reasonable to use these drugs for patients with comorbidities in the treatment of pancreatic cancer. Furthermore, gemcitabine (GEM) affects antitumor immunity by stimulating the expression of major histocompatibility complex class I-related chain A on the surface of cancer cells to enhance the cytotoxicity of natural killer cells. Considering EMT and antitumor immunity, there is a possibility that GEM and nanoparticle albumin-bound paclitaxel therapy is the most suitable regimen for treating pancreatic cancer. However, even as preoperative treatment progresses, R0 resection is the most important factor for the long-term survival of pancreatic cancer patients.

Treatment of symptomatic neuroendocrine tumor syndromes: recent advances and controversies

INTRODUCTION

Neuroendocrine tumors(NETs), once thought rare, are increasing in frequency in most countries and receiving increasing-attention. NETs present two-treatment problems. A proportion is aggressive and a proportion has a functional, hormone-excess-state(F-NET), each of which must be treated. Recently, there have been many advances, well-covered in reviews/consensus papers on imaging-NETs; new, novel anti-tumor treatments and understanding their pathogenesis. However, little attention has been paid to advances in the treatment of the hormone-excess-state. These advances are usually reported in case-series, and case-reports with few large studies. In this paper these advances are reviewed. Areas covered: Advances in the last 5-years are concentrated on, but a review of literature from the last 10-years was performed. PubMed and other databases (Cochrane, etc.) were searched for F-NET-syndromes including carcinoid-syndrome, as well as meeting-abstracts on NETs. All advances that controlled hormone-excess-states or facilitated-control were covered. These include new medical-therapies [serotonin-synthesis inhibitors(telotristat), Pasireotide, new agents for treating ACTHomas], increased dosing with conventional therapies (octreotide-LAR, Lanreotide-Autogel), mTor inhibitors(everolimus), Tyrosine-kinase inhibitors(sunitinib),cytoreductive surgery, liver-directed therapies (embolization, chemoembolization, radioembolization, RFA), peptide radio-receptor-therapy(PRRT) and ¹³¹I-MIBG, ablation of primary F-NETs. Expert opinion: Although many of the newer therapies controlling the hormone-excess-states in F-NETs are reported in relatively few patients, all the approaches show promise. Their description also generates some controversies/unresolved areas,such as the order of these new treatments, their longterm-efficacy, and effectiveness of combinations which may require large,controlled studies.

Robotic-assisted pancreatic surgery

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic surgery is a challenging application of minimally invasive surgery. Due to the complexity of the surgical technique, requiring dissection along major abdominal vessels as well as delicate reconstruction involving biliary, pancreatic and enteric anastomoses, reports on laparoscopic pancreatic surgery have been scanty. With the advent of robotic-assisted surgery, however, the increased dexterity granted by endo-wristed instruments, the improved three-dimensional vision and the computer filtration of the surgeon's movements have brought minimally invasive pancreatic surgery into a new era.

METHODS

As the surgical group which has performed the highest number of robotic-assisted pancreatic procedures worldwide, we review the state of the art of minimally invasive robotic-assisted pancreatic surgery. Clinical results from all major robotic-assisted pancreatic surgery series are considered.

RESULTS

Preliminary reports from the published major pancreatic surgery series show encouraging results, with morbidity and mortality comparable to open surgery. Preliminary data on cancer survival rates also appear to be similar to open series.

CONCLUSION

Robotic-assisted pancreatic surgery is safe and feasible for all pancreatic diseases. The complexity of pancreatic procedures warrant them to be carried out in specialised centres, where short- and long-term outcomes seem to be similar to the ones achieved in open surgery.

Current State of Vascular Resections in Pancreatic Cancer Surgery

Pancreatic cancer (PDAC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related mortality in the Western world and, even in 2014, a therapeutic challenge. The only chance for long-term survival is radical surgical resection followed by adjuvant chemotherapy which can be performed in about 20% of all PDAC patients by the time of diagnosis. As pancreatic surgery has significantly changed during the past years, extended operations, including vascular resections, have become more frequently performed in specialized centres and the border of resectability has been pushed forward to achieve a potentially curative approach in the respective patients in combination with neoadjuvant and adjuvant treatment strategies. In contrast to adjuvant treatment which has to be regarded as a cornerstone to achieve long-term survival after resection, neoadjuvant treatment strategies for locally advanced findings are currently under debate. This overview summarizes the possibilities and evidence of vascular, namely, venous and arterial, resections in PDAC surgery.

Navigation surgery using an augmented reality for pancreatectomy

AIM

The aim of this study was to evaluate the utility of navigation surgery using augmented reality technology (AR-based NS) for pancreatectomy.

METHODS

The 3D reconstructed images from CT were created by segmentation. The initial registration was performed by using the optical location sensor. The reconstructed images were superimposed onto the real organs in the monitor display. Of the 19 patients who had undergone hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgery using AR-based NS, the accuracy, visualization ability, and utility of our system were assessed in five cases with pancreatectomy.

RESULTS

The position of each organ in the surface-rendering image corresponded almost to that of the actual organ. Reference to the display image allowed for safe dissection while preserving the adjacent vessels or organs. The locations of the lesions and resection line on the targeted organ were overlaid on the operating field. The initial mean registration error was improved to approximately 5 mm by our refinements. However, several problems such as registration accuracy, portability and cost still remain.

CONCLUSION

AR-based NS contributed to accurate and effective surgical resection in pancreatectomy. The pancreas appears to be a suitable organ for further investigations. This technology is promising to improve surgical quality, training, and education.

Inferior mesenteric vein serves as an alternative guide for transection of the pancreatic body during pancreaticoduodenectomy with concomitant vascular resection: a comparative study evaluating perioperative outcomes

BACKGROUND

Tumors of the pancreatic head often involve the superior mesenteric and portal veins. The purpose of this study was to assess perioperative outcomes after pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) with concomitant vascular resection using the inferior mesenteric vein (IMV) as a guide for transection of the pancreatic body (Whipple at IMV, WATIMV).

METHODS

One hundred thirty-seven patients had segmental vein resection during PD between January 2006 and June 2013. Depending on whether the standard approach of creating a tunnel anterior to the mesenterico-portal vein (MPV) axis was achieved for pancreatic transection, patients were subjected to a standard PD with vein resection procedure (s-PD + VR, n = 75) or a modified procedure (m-PD + VR, n = 62). Within the m-PD + VR group, 28 patients underwent the WATIMV procedure, while 34 patients underwent the usual procedure of transection, or 'central pancreatectomy' (c-PD + VR).

RESULTS

The volume of intraoperative blood loss and the blood transfusion requirements were significantly greater, and the venous wall invasion and neural invasion frequency were significantly higher in the m-PD + VR group compared with the s-PD + VR group. There were no significant differences in the length of hospitalization, postoperative morbidity, and grades of complications between the two groups. Multivariate logistic regression identified intraoperative blood transfusion (P = 0.004) and vascular invasion (P = 0.008) as the predictors of postoperative morbidity. Further stratification of the entire cohort of 62 (45%) patients who underwent m-PD + VR showed a higher rate of negative resection margins (96.4%) in the WATIMV group compared with the c-PD + VR group (76.5%) (P = 0.06). The volume of intraoperative blood loss (P = 0.013), and intraoperative blood transfusion requirements (P = 0.07) were significantly greater in the c-PD + VR group compared with the WATIMV group. Furthermore, high intraoperative blood loss and tumor stage were predictive of a positive resection margin.

CONCLUSIONS

'Whipple at the IMV (WATIMV)' has comparable postoperative morbidity with standard PD + VR. If IMV runs into the splenic vein, it could serve as an alternative guide for transection of the pancreatic body during PD + VR.

Neoadjuvant strategies for pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is the fourth cause of cancer death in Western countries, the only chance for long term survival is an R0 surgical resection that is feasible in about 10%-20% of all cases. Five years cumulative survival is less than 5% and rises to 25% for radically resected patients. About 40% has locally advanced in PC either borderline resectable (BRPC) or unresectable locally advanced (LAPC). Since LAPC and BRPC have been recognized as a particular form of PC neoadjuvant therapy (NT) has increasingly became a valid treatment option. The aim of NT is to reach local control of disease but, also, it is recognized to convert about 40% of LAPC patients to R0 resectability, thus providing a significant improvement of prognosis for responding patients. Once R0 resection is achieved, survival is comparable to that of early stage PCs treated by upfront surgery. Thus it is crucial to look for a proper patient selection. Neoadjuvant strategies are multiples and include neoadjuvant chemotherapy (nCT), and the association of nCT with radiotherapy (nCRT) given as either a combination of a radio sensitizing drug as gemcitabine or capecitabine or and concomitant irradiation or as upfront nCT followed by nRT associated to a radio sensitizing drug. This latter seem to be most promising as it may select patients who do not go on disease progression during initial treatment and seem to have a better prognosis. The clinical relevance of nCRT may be enhanced by the application of higher active protocols as FOLFIRINOX.

Borderline resectable pancreatic cancer: a consensus statement by the International Study Group of Pancreatic Surgery (ISGPS)

BACKGROUND

This position statement was developed to expedite a consensus on definition and treatment for borderline resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (BRPC) that would have worldwide acceptability.

METHODS

An international panel of pancreatic surgeons from well-established, high-volume centers collaborated on a literature review and development of consensus on issues related to borderline resectable pancreatic cancer.

RESULTS

The International Study Group of Pancreatic Surgery (ISGPS) supports the National Comprehensive Cancer Network criteria for the definition of BRPC. Current evidence supports operative exploration and resection in the case of involvement of the mesentericoportal venous axis; in addition, a new classification of extrahepatic mesentericoportal venous resections is proposed by the ISGPS. Suspicion of arterial involvement should lead to exploration to confirm the imaging-based findings. Formal arterial resections are not recommended; however, in exceptional circumstances, individual therapeutic approaches may be evaluated under experimental protocols. The ISGPS endorses the recommendations for specimen examination and the definition of an R1 resection (tumor within 1 mm from the margin) used by the British Royal College of Pathologists. Standard preoperative diagnostics for BRPC may include: (1) serum levels of CA19-9, because CA19-9 levels predict survival in large retrospective series; and also (2) the modified Glasgow Prognostic Score and the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio because of the prognostic relevance of the systemic inflammatory response. Various regimens of neoadjuvant therapy are recommended only in the setting of prospective trials at high-volume centers.

CONCLUSION

Current evidence justifies portomesenteric venous resection in patients with BRPC. Basic definitions were identified, that are currently lacking but that are needed to obtain further evidence and improvement for this important patient subgroup. A consensus for each topic is given.

Treatment of borderline resectable pancreatic cancer

OPINION STATEMENT

Borderline resectable pancreatic adenocarcinoma represents a subset of localized cancers that are at high risk for a margin-positive resection and early treatment failure when resected de novo. Although several different anatomic definitions for this disease stage exist, there is agreement that some degree of reconstructible mesenteric vessel involvement by the tumor is the critical anatomic feature that positions borderline resectable between anatomically resectable and unresectable (locally advanced) tumors in the spectrum of localized disease. Consensus also exists that such cancers should be treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy and/or chemoradiation before resection; although the optimal algorithm is unknown, systemic chemotherapy followed by chemoradiation is a rational approach. Although gemcitabine-based systemic chemotherapy with either 5-FU or gemcitabine-based chemoradiation regimens has been used to date, newer regimens, including FOLFIRINOX, should be evaluated on protocol. Delivery of neoadjuvant therapy necessitates durable biliary decompression for as many as 6 months in many patients with cancers of the pancreatic head. Patients with no evidence of metastatic disease following neoadjuvant therapy should be brought to the operating room for pancreatectomy, at which time resection of the superior mesenteric/portal vein and/or hepatic artery should be performed when necessary to achieve a margin-negative resection. Following completion of multimodality therapy, patients with borderline resectable pancreatic cancer can expect a duration of survival as favorable as that of patients who initially present with resectable tumors. Coordination among a multidisciplinary team of physicians is necessary to maximize these complex patients' short- and long-term oncologic outcomes.

[Pancreatic cancer in the elderly: guidelines and individualized therapy]

The considerable increase of the aged population in western civilisation within the next years will result in a rising incidence of pancreatic cancer. Until the year 2020 an increment of 20  % of patients beyond 65 years old can be anticipated. Therefore, the focus will be on management of old and geriatric surgical patients leading to strategical re-evaluation of surgical indications under critical consideration of feasibility and purpose. Even under modern interdisciplinary therapy concepts the prognosis of ductal adenocarcinoma of the pancreas remains poor with an overall 5-year survival rate of less than 5  %. The surgical resection is still considered as the only potential curative treatment option with extended life expectancy; however, it is technically demanding and furthermore associated with significant morbidity. In particular, the quality of surgery of the now interdisciplinary therapy of pancreatic cancer is markedly improved when performed at a high-volume centres. Until now only a few retrospective data analyses evaluating the perioperative and long-term outcome after pancreatic tumor resections in geriatric patients exist. The available results, however, support radical surgical procedures even beyond the age of 75 years.

Spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy with and without splenic vessel ligation: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Splenic preservation during a distal pancreatectomy (SPDP) may be performed with splenic vessel ligation, known as Warshaw's Technique (WT) or splenic vessel preservation (SVP). The consensus on which approach is best is divided. A systematic review of evidence in the literature was undertaken with the aim of analysing the merits and disadvantages of both WT and SVP.

METHODS

A systematic search of medical literature from 1985-2011 was undertaken to identify all comparative studies and case series on SPDP. Non-English papers, series with < 5 patients, technical reports and reviews were excluded. The remaining articles were reviewed considering the study design, surgical technique, outcomes and complications.

RESULTS

In 23 relevant studies, 356 patients underwent WT and 572 underwent SVP. In WT patients, the mean operating time (160 versus 215 min, P < 0.001), mean estimated blood loss (301 versus 390 ml, P < 0.001) and length of stay (8 versus 11 days, P < 0.001) was significantly less than the SVP patients, respectively. Considering complications, splenic infarction and splenectomy occurred more frequently in WT patients (P < 0.05).

DISCUSSION

WT is technically easier to perform than SVP but has a higher incidence of subsequent splenectomies. Surgeons should be able to perform both procedures and tailor the technique according to the patient.

Pancreatic surgery: beyond the traditional limits

Pancreatic cancer is one of the five leading causes of cancer death for both males and females in the western world. More than 85 % pancreatic tumors are of ductal origin but the incidence of cystic tumors such as intrapapillary mucinous tumors (IPMN) or mucinous cystic tumors (MCN) and other rare tumors is rising. Complete surgical resection of the tumor is the mainstay of any curative therapeutic approach, however, up to 40 % of patients with potentially resectable pancreatic cancer are not offered surgery. This is despite 5-year survival rates of up to 40 % or even higher in selected patients depending on tumor stage and histology. Standard procedures for pancreatic tumors include the Kausch-Whipple- or pylorus-preserving Whipple procedure, and the left lateral pancreatic resection (often with splenectomy), and usually include regional lymphadenectomy. More radical or extended pancreatic operations are becoming increasingly utilised however and we examine the data available for their role. These operations include major venous and arterial resection, multivisceral resections and surgery for metastatic disease, or palliative pancreatic resection. Portal vein resection for local infiltration with or without replacement graft is now well established and does not deleteriously affect perioperative morbidity or mortality. Arterial resection, however, though often technically feasible, has questionable oncologic impact, is not without risk and is usually reserved for isolated cases. The value of extended lymphadenectomy is frequently debated; the recent level I evidence demonstrates no advantage. Multivisceral resections, i.e. tumors, often in the tail of the pancreas, with invasion of the colon or stomach or other surrounding tissues, while associated with an increased morbidity and a longer hospital stay, do however show comparable mortality-and survival rates to those without such infiltration and therefore should be performed if technically feasible. Routine resection for metastatic disease however does not seem to show any advantage over palliative treatment but may be an option in selected patients with easily removable metastases. In conclusion pancreatic surgery beyond the traditional limits is established in tumors infiltration the venous system and may be a considered approach in selected patients with locally infiltrating pancreatic cancer or metastasis.

Middle segmental pancreatectomy: A safe and organ-preserving option for benign and low-grade malignant lesions

AIM: To study the feasibility and safety of middle segmental pancreatectomy (MSP) compared with pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) and extended distal pancreatectomy (EDP).

METHODS: We studied retrospectively 36 cases that underwent MSP, 44 patients who underwent PD, and 26 who underwent EDP with benign or low-grade malignant lesions in the mid-portion of the pancreas, between April 2003 and December 2009 in Ruijin Hospital. The perioperative outcomes and long-term outcomes of MSP were compared with those of EDP and PD. Perioperative outcomes included operative time, intraoperative hemorrhage, transfusion, pancreatic fistula, intra-abdominal abscess/infection, postoperative bleeding, reoperation, mortality, and postoperative hospital time. Long-term outcomes, including tumor recurrence, new-onset diabetes mellitus (DM), and pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, were evaluated.

RESULTS: Intraoperative hemorrhage was 316.1 ± 309.6, 852.2 ± 877.8 and 526.9 ± 414.5 mL for the MSP, PD and EDP groups, respectively (P < 0.05). The mean postoperative daily fasting blood glucose level was significantly lower in the MSP group than in the EDP group (6.3 ± 1.5 mmol/L vs 7.3 ± 1.5 mmol/L, P < 0.05). The rate of pancreatic fistula was higher in the MSP group than in the PD group (42% vs 20.5%, P = 0.039), all of the fistulas after MSP corresponded to grade A (9/15) or B (6/15) and were sealed following conservative treatment. There was no significant difference in the mean postoperative hospital stay between the MSP group and the other two groups. After a mean follow-up of 44 mo, no tumor recurrences were found, only one patient (2.8%) in the MSP group vs five (21.7%) in the EDP group developed new-onset insulin-dependent DM postoperatively (P = 0.029). Moreover, significantly fewer patients in the MSP group than in the PD (0% vs 33.3%, P < 0.001) and EDP (0% vs 21.7%, P = 0.007) required enzyme substitution.

CONCLUSION: MSP is a safe and organ-preserving option for benign or low-grade malignant lesions in the neck and proximal body of the pancreas.

Laparoscopic pancreaticoduodenectomy: experience of 22 cases

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic pancreatic surgery has gradually expanded its applications to include pancreaticoduodenectomy. However, the benefits of the laparoscopic approach are still debated. This article aims to present data regarding the efficacy of laparoscopic pancreaticoduodenectomy in a single center.

METHODS

From March 2003 to June 2010, a total of 22 patients underwent pancreaticoduodenectomy with a totally laparoscopic approach, using a five-trocar technique. Reconstruction of the digestive tract was adapted to the aspect of the pancreatic stump, with 6 patients having Wirsung duct occlusion and 16 patients pancreaticodigestive anastomosis. Patient selection, short-term outcomes, oncologic results, and technical issues were retrospectively reviewed.

RESULTS

Mean operative time was 392 (range, 327-570) min. Conversion was required in 2 patients (9.1 %) as a result of bleeding and difficult dissection. Major intraoperative complications included an injury to the right hepatic artery (4.5 %). Postoperative mortality was 4.5 %. Surgery-related morbidity occurred in 14 patients (63.6 %) and included bleeding (n = 5), pancreatic fistula (n = 6), biliary fistula (n = 2), and dumping syndrome (n = 1). Pancreatic fistulas occurred in 4 patients with duct occlusion and in 2 patients with pancreaticojejunostomy, and they all healed with conservative treatment. Mean hospital stay was 23 (range, 12-35) days. Pathologic diagnoses were pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (n = 11), ampullary adenocarcinoma (n = 8), and duodenal adenocarcinoma (n = 3). The resection margins were all free from disease; the mean number of collected lymph nodes was 15 (range, 14-20).

CONCLUSIONS

The complexity of pancreaticoduodenectomy entails some issues, including patient selection and management of the pancreatic stump, that are not related to the approach used. Laparoscopic pancreaticoduodenectomy is feasible, safe, and oncologically adequate, but only if performed in selected cases by highly skilled laparoscopic surgeons. Laparoscopy does not provide any significant advantage over traditional surgery, but it may improve postoperative outcomes in the so-called excellence centers, once the learning curve has been overcome. Multicenter randomized trials are needed.

[Results of the laparoscopic approach in left-sided pancreatectomy]

INTRODUCTION

Laparoscopic left-sided pancreatectomy (LLP) is an accepted technique for the treatment of benign and pre-malignant lesions of the left side of the pancreas, but there is still controversy on its use for malignant ones.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate our results in LLP as a routine technique for primary lesions of the left pancreas.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We performed LLP in 15 patients for primary lesions of the pancreas from November 2007 to November 2011. An intra-abdominal drainage was left in all cases, and the recommendations of the International Study Group for Pancreatic Fistula were followed.

RESULTS

The mean age of the patients was 64±13 years. Six radical spleno-pancreatectomies, 3 corporo-caudal with preservation of the spleen, and 6 pure distal (4 with preservation of the spleen). There was one conversion. The mean surgical time was 230±69 minutes. The mean post-operative stay was 8.1±7.6 days. At 90 days, complications were detected in 4 patients; 3 grade II and one grade V according to the modified classification of Clavien. There was one grade B pancreatic fistula. The diagnosis was a malignant neoplasm in 53% of cases. The number of resected lymph nodes in the cases where a radical resection was planned due to cancer was 21.7±11.5, there being negative margins in all cases.

CONCLUSIONS

LLP may be considered as a suitable technique for the treatment of primary pancreatic lesions, including malignant ones, provided that it is performed by groups with experience in pancreatic surgery and highly trained in laparoscopic surgery.

The impact of vascular resection on early postoperative outcomes after pancreaticoduodenectomy: an analysis of the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database

BACKGROUND

Several single-center reports suggest that vascular resection (VR) during pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) for patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma is feasible without affecting early postoperative mortality or morbidity. Our objective is to review the outcomes associated with VR during PD using a large multicenter data source.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort analysis was performed using the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Participant User Files for 2005-2009. All patients undergoing PD for a postoperative diagnosis of malignant neoplasm of the pancreas were included. Forward stepwise multivariate regression analysis was used to determine the association between VR during PD and 30-day postoperative mortality and morbidity after adjustment for patient demographics and comorbidities.

RESULTS

3,582 patients were included for analysis, 281 (7.8 %) of whom underwent VR during PD. VR during PD was associated with significantly greater risk-adjusted 30-day postoperative mortality [5.7 % with VR versus 2.9 % without VR, adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 2.1, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.22-3.73, P = 0.008] and overall morbidity (39.9 % with VR versus 33.3 % without VR, AOR 1.36, 95 % CI 1.05-1.75, P = 0.02). There was no significant difference in risk-adjusted postoperative mortality or morbidity between those patients undergoing VR by the primary surgical team versus those patients undergoing VR by a vascular surgical team.

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to the findings of several previously published single-center analyses, the current study demonstrates increased 30-day postoperative morbidity and mortality in PD with VR when compared with PD alone.

Ductal adenocarcinoma of the pancreatic head: A focus on current diagnostic and surgical concepts

Complete surgical resection still remains the only possibility of curing pancreatic cancer, however, only 10% of patients undergo curative surgery. Pancreatic resection currently remains the only method of curing patients, and has a 5-year overall survival rate between 7%-34% compared to a median survival of 3-11 mo for unresected cancer. Pancreatic surgery is a technically demanding procedure requiring highly standardized surgical techniques. Nevertheless, even in experienced hands, perioperative morbidity rates (delayed gastric emptying, pancreatic fistula etc.) are as high as 50%. Different strategies to reduce postoperative morbidity, such as different techniques of gastroenteric reconstruction (pancreatico-jejunostomy vs pancreatico-gastrostomy), intraoperative placement of a pancreatic main duct stent or temporary sealing of the main pancreatic duct with fibrin glue have not led to a significant improvement in clinical outcome. The perioperative application of somatostatin or its analogues may decrease the incidence of pancreatic fistulas in cases with soft pancreatic tissue and a small main pancreatic duct (< 3 mm). The positive effects of external pancreatic main duct drainage and antecolic gastrointestinal reconstruction have been observed to decrease the rate of pancreatic fistulas and delayed gastric emptying, respectively. Currently, the concept of extended radical lymphadenectomy has been found to be associated with higher perioperative morbidity, but without any positive impact on overall survival. However, there is growing evidence that portal vein resections can be performed with acceptable low perioperative morbidity and mortality but does not achieve a cure.

The influence of total nodes examined, number of positive nodes, and lymph node ratio on survival after surgical resection and adjuvant chemoradiation for pancreatic cancer: a secondary analysis of RTOG 9704

PURPOSE

Lymph node status is an important predictor of survival in pancreatic cancer. We performed a secondary analysis of Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) 9704, an adjuvant chemotherapy and chemoradiation trial, to determine the influence of lymph node factors--number of positive nodes (NPN), total nodes examined (TNE), and lymph node ratio (LNR ratio of NPN to TNE)--on OS and disease-free survival (DFS).

PATIENT AND METHODS

Eligible patients from RTOG 9704 form the basis of this secondary analysis of lymph node parameters. Actuarial estimates for OS and DFS were calculated using Kaplan-Meier methods. Cox proportional hazards models were performed to evaluate associations of NPN, TNE, and LNR with OS and DFS. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards models were also performed.

RESULTS

There were 538 patients enrolled in the RTOG 9704 trial. Of these, 445 patients were eligible with lymph nodes removed. Overall median NPN was 1 (min-max, 0-18). Increased NPN was associated with worse OS (HR=1.06, p=0.001) and DFS (HR=1.05, p=0.01). In multivariate analyses, both NPN and TNE were associated with OS and DFS. TNE>12, and >15 were associated with increased OS for all patients, but not for node-negative patients (n=142). Increased LNR was associated with worse OS (HR=1.01, p<0.0001) and DFS (HR=1.006, p=0.002).

CONCLUSION

In patients who undergo surgical resection followed by adjuvant chemoradiation, TNE, NPN, and LNR are associated with OS and DFS. This secondary analysis of a prospective, cooperative group trial supports the influence of these lymph node parameters on outcomes after surgery and adjuvant therapy using contemporary techniques.

Pancreatic endocrine tumors with major vascular abutment, involvement, or encasement and indication for resection

BACKGROUND

Surgery for pancreatic endocrine tumors (PETs) with blood vessel involvement is controversial.

HYPOTHESIS

Resection of PETs with major blood vessel involvement can be beneficial.

DESIGN

The combined databases of the National Institutes of Health and Stanford University hospitals were queried.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Operation, pathologic condition, complications, and disease-free and overall survival.

RESULTS

Of 273 patients with PETs, 46 (17%) had preoperative computed tomography evidence of major vascular involvement. The mean size for the primary PET was 5.0 cm. The involved major vessel was as follows: portal vein (n = 20), superior mesenteric vein or superior mesenteric artery (n = 16), inferior vena cava (n = 4), splenic vein (n = 4), and heart (n = 2). Forty-two of 46 patients had a PET removed: 12 (27%) primary only, 30 (68%) with lymph nodes, and 18 (41%) with liver metastases. PETs were removed by either enucleation (n = 7) or resection (n = 35). Resections included distal or subtotal pancreatectomy in 23, Whipple in 10, and total in 2. Eighteen patients had concomitant liver resection: 10 wedge resection and 8 anatomic resections. Nine patients had vascular reconstruction: each had reconstruction of the superior mesenteric vein and portal vein, and 1 had concomitant reconstruction of the superior mesenteric artery. There were no deaths, but 12 patients had complications. Eighteen patients (41%) were immediately disease free, and 5 recurred with follow-up, leaving 13 (30%) disease-free long term. The 10-year overall survival was 60%. Functional tumors were associated with a better overall survival (P < .001), and liver metastases decreased overall survival (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that surgical resection of PETs with vascular abutment/invasion and nodal or distant metastases is indicated.

Central pancreatectomy for pancreatoblastoma in a 16-year-old girl

Long-term functional results after standard pancreatic resections are a major concern, especially in children. An alternative pancreas-sparing procedure (such as central pancreatectomy) should be taken into consideration whenever it is feasible, and a prolonged survival is expected. Pancreatoblastoma is an unusual malignant tumor in childhood. However, in initially resectable tumors, the 15-year survival is more than 80%. Thus, there is a potential role of a conservative pancreatic resection in successful treatment of pancreatoblastoma. The management in a case of a 16-year-old girl with a pancreatoblastoma in the body of pancreas is presented. Complete surgical resection by central pancreatectomy followed by chemotherapy led to a prolonged disease-free survival, with good functional results. Central pancreatectomy could be an alternative surgical technique in some selected cases of pancreatoblastoma, having the lowest incidence of postoperative exocrine and endocrine insufficiency rate and offering the best nutritional status.

[From the surgical field to the microscope. A new tool to identify the lymph node specimens in oncologic surgery]

Oncologic surgery and pTNM staging require systemic removal of the locoregional lymphnodes. While the optimal extent and therapeutical and/or prognostic value of the lymphadenectomy/sampling are debated organ by organ and (sub)speciality by (sub)speciality, relevance of the lymphnode sytem-tumor concept itself is beyond doubt. Loss of information and existence of traps on the "surgical field-microscope" pathway is an international phenomenon, calling for solution. An integrated sterile and disposable lymphnode tray system is presented here for applications in the different fields of cancer surgery of the upper GI tract, retroperitoneum (gynecology, urology) and ear-nose-throat surgery.

Current state of surgical management of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is still associated with a poor prognosis and remains—as the fourth leading cause of cancer related mortality—a therapeutic challenge. Overall long-term survival is about 1–5%, and in only 10–20% of pancreatic cancer patients is potentially curative surgery possible, increasing five-year survival rates to approximately 20–25%. Pancreatic surgery is a technically challenging procedure and has significantly changed during the past decades with regard to technical aspects as well as perioperative care. Standardized resections can be carried out with low morbidity and mortality below 5% in high volume institutions. Furthermore, there is growing evidence that also more extended resections including multivisceral approaches, vessel reconstructions or surgery for tumor recurrence can be carried out safely with favorable outcomes. The impact of adjuvant treatment, especially chemotherapy, has increased dramatically within recent years, leading to significantly improved postoperative survival, making pancreatic cancer therapy an interdisciplinary approach to achieve best results.

Safety of pancreatic surgery in patients with simultaneous liver cirrhosis: a single center experience

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Pancreatic surgery is associated with an increased risk of postoperative complications. We therefore investigated the impact of an additional liver function disorder on the postoperative outcome using a case-control study of patients with or without liver cirrhosis who underwent pancreatic surgery at our department.

METHODS

Between 1998 and 2008, 1,649 pancreatic resections were performed. Of these, 32 operations were performed in patients who also suffered from liver cirrhosis (30× Child A, 2× Child B). For our case-control study, we selected another 32 operated patients without cirrhosis who were matched according to age, sex, diagnosis and tumor classification. The following parameters were compared between both groups: operating time, number of transfusions, duration of ICU and hospital stay, incidence of complications, rate of reoperation, mortality.

RESULTS

Patients with cirrhosis experienced complications significantly more often (69 vs. 44%; p = 0.044), especially major complications (47 vs. 22%; p = 0.035) requiring reoperation (34 vs. 12%; p = 0.039). These patients also had a prolonged hospital stay (27.9 vs. 24.3 days) and a significantly longer ICU stay (8.6 vs. 3.7 days; p = 0.033), and required twice as many transfusions. Overall, 3 patients died following surgery, 1 with Child A (3% of all Child A patients) and 2 with Child B cirrhosis.

CONCLUSION

Pancreatic surgery is associated with an increased risk of postoperative complications in patients with liver cirrhosis, and is therefore not recommended in patients with Child B cirrhosis. In Child A cirrhotic patients the mortality is, however, comparable to noncirrhotic patients. Due to the demanding medical efforts that these patients require, they should be treated exclusively in high-volume centers. and IAP.

Current opinion on lymphadenectomy in pancreatic cancer surgery

BACKGROUND

Adenocarcinoma of the pancreas exhibits aggressive behavior in growth, inducing an extremely poor prognosis with an overall median 5-year survival rate of only 1%-4%. Curative resection is the only potential therapeutic opportunity.

DATA SOURCES

A PubMed search of relevant articles published up to 2009 was performed to identify information about the value of lymphadenectomy and its extent in curative resection of pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

RESULTS

Despite recent advances in chemotherapy, radiotherapy or even immunotherapy, surgery still remains the major factor that affects the outcome. The initial promising performance in Japan gave conflicting results in Western countries for the extended and more radical pancreatectomy; it has failed to prove beneficial. Four prospective, randomized trials on extended versus standard lymphadenectomy during pancreatic cancer surgery have shown no improvement in long-term survival by the extended resection. The exact lymph node status, including malignant spread and the total number retrieved as well as the lymph node ratio, is the most important prognostic factor. Positive lymph nodes after pancreatectomy are present in 70%. Paraaortic lymph node spread indicates poor prognosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Undoubtedly, a standard lymphadenectomy including >15 lymph nodes must be no longer preferred in patients with the usual head location. The extended lymphadenectomy does not have any place, unless in randomized trials. In cases with body or tail location, the radical antegrade modular pancreatosplenectomy gives promising results. Nevertheless, accurate localization and detailed examination of the resected specimen are required for better staging.

Risk factors for clinical pancreatic fistula after distal pancreatectomy: analysis of consecutive 100 patients

BACKGROUND

The mortality associated with distal pancreatectomy (DP) has declined to <5% in recent years in high-volume centers. However, morbidity remains high, ranging from 32% to 57%. Pancreatic fistula (PF) is the most common complication after DP. The aim of this study was to analyze factors associated with the occurrence of clinical PF.

METHODS

A retrospective review was performed of the medical records of 100 patients who underwent DP in our institution between May 2001 and January 2009.

RESULTS

There was no mortality, but morbidity was occurred in 65 patients (65%), with major complications occurring in 9 patients (9%). PF occurred in 50 patients (50%) and clinical PF occurred in 23 patients (23%). Multivariate analysis indicated that independent risk factors for clinical PF were: age younger than 65 years (P = 0.049; odds ratio (OR) 2.958; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.007-8.688), not ligating the main pancreatic duct (MPD) (P = 0.02; OR 4.933; 95% CI 1.283-18.967), and extended lymphadenectomy (P = 0.008; OR 4.773; 95% CI 1.504-15.145).

CONCLUSIONS

Age < 65 years, not ligating the MPD, and extended lymphadenectomy are independent risk factors for clinical PF.

Tumors of the Pancreatic Body and Tail

Tumors of the pancreatic body and tail are uncommon. They have a propensity to present late and often attain a large size with local invasion before they produce any clinical symptoms. The current review aims at comprehensively analysing these tumors with respect to their pathology, presentation, the investigation of these tumors, and finally the latest trends in their surgical and medical management.

Islet cell tumours

Pancreatic endocrine tumours can cause hormonal symptoms by over-secretion of hormones. They are less aggressive than exocrine pancreatic cancer, but carry a variable prognosis. The tumours are either sporadic or hereditary, as part of the multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 syndrome. Despite the rarity of these tumours, they evoke significant interest in the research community and important advances have been made over the past years. This chapter provides an overview of the tumours and recent advances in the field. Hereditary forms of pancreatic endocrine tumours are caused by mutations in the MEN1 gene. Menin, the protein encoded by this gene, has been shown to interact with numerous transcription factors and proteins involved in cell-cycle control, shedding some light on the importance of the protein. Several genes have been shown to be up- or down-regulated, suggesting candidates to be further evaluated for a role in tumourigenesis. Several advances have been made in prognostication; a tumour-node-metastasis system has been evaluated and seems to have prognostic value, and several new molecular prognostic markers are under evaluation. It is hoped that the tumour-node-metastasis system and other prognostic markers will be adopted in clinical routine and improve prognostication and treatment choices. Surgery is still the only cure, but several new palliative drugs and interventions are in use or under investigation. Radiofrequency ablation is increasingly used for liver metastases, and a number of new chemotherapy drugs are being tested. Despite improvements in treatment, no clear improvement in survival has been demonstrated.

Diagnosis and management of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is an aggressive malignancy with the majority of patients dying within one year of diagnosis. While surgical resection with negative margins offers the only hope for cure only a small minority of patients are amenable to resection at the time of diagnosis owing to the propensity for early metastasis. While most advances in the last several decades have revolved around improvements in surgical techniques and postoperative outcomes, some modest inroads have been made with modern chemotherapy. This review discusses the diagnosis and management of pancreatic cancer and highlights some of the current issues. A Medline database search was performed to identify relevant articles using the keywords "pancreatic adenocarcinoma", "diagnosis", "CA19-9", "pancreaticoduodenectomy", "adjuvant therapy", "chemotherapy", and "microRNA". Additional papers were then identified by a manual search of the references from the key articles. While high quality CT is often the only imaging modality needed for preoperative evaluation, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), cholangiography, and endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) have been utilized for diagnosis, staging, and/ or palliation. The controversies of pylorus preservation, extended lymphadenectomy, and laparoscopic pancreaticoduodenectomy are discussed. Randomized controlled trials regarding the use of 5-fluorouracil and gemcitabine are also reviewed. Early detection and aggressive surgical resection in combination with protocol-driven adjuvant therapy and novel molecular approaches are the only hope for cure. This review summarizes the recent literature on the abovementioned topics.

Translational advances and novel therapies for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: hope or hype?

Biological complexity, inaccessible anatomical location, nonspecific symptoms, lack of a screening biomarker, advanced disease at presentation and drug resistance epitomise pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) as a poor-prognosis, lethal disease. Twenty-five years of research (basic, translational and clinical) have barely made strides to improve survival, mainly because of a fundamental lack of knowledge of the biological processes initiating and propagating PDA. However, isolation of pancreas cancer stem cells or progenitors, whole-genome sequencing for driver mutations, advances in functional imaging, mechanistic dissection of the desmoplastic reaction and novel targeted therapies are likely to shed light on how best to treat PDA. Here we summarise current knowledge and areas where the field is advancing, and give our opinion on the research direction the field should be focusing on to better deliver promising therapies for our patients.

Limitations in improving detection of pancreatic adenocarcinoma

OBJECTIVE

To review the current trends in pancreatic cancer research and propose alternatives for an earlier diagnosis.

METHOD

A search was conducted using the PubMed and Scielo electronic databases to find statistics related to the incidence of pancreatic cancer.

RESULTS

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth most common cause of cancer mortality in the USA; in Colombia the incidence of this neoplasia is 4.5 per 100,000 individuals; and in Peru, amongst digestive diseases, it is the fifth most common cause. In Brazil and Chile this cancer has increased in incidence, while in Mexico, it has decreased in terms of the relative percentage of gastrointestinal cancers from 1976 to 2003. Chronic pancreatitis, cigarette smoking, diabetes, obesity and dietary mutagen exposure are the most consistent risk factors implicated in the development of pancreatic cancer; however, the genetic and molecular changes underlying the epidemiological association between these factors and pancreatic cancer remain largely unknown, and only 5-10% are hereditary in nature.

CONCLUSION

The prognosis for pancreatic cancer has not changed substantially for at least the last 20 years. The most useful tumor marker for pancreatic adenocarcinoma is still the carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA19-9). Currently, a multimodal-screening approach of endoscopic ultrasound, computed tomography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography are the most effective methods to detect pancreatic cancer in high-risk patients. Future options for early detection of this malignancy are focused on new molecular markers, telomerase enzyme, receptor-targeted imaging using multifunctional nanoparticles, detection of glycan changes and epigenetics.

[Computerized tomography in postoperative monitoring of patients with the Whipple operation--characteristics of CT findings]

We presented the postoperative CT findings of patients after the Whipple's operation (cephalic pancreaticoduodenectomy), performed for the pancreatic head cancer, or ampullary carcinoma. Technique of the Whipple's operation is described, and normal and pathological postoperative CT findings, which are characteristic for the immediate (early) and delayed (late) follow-up period, are presented. In addition, difficulties in differentiation of afferent jejunal loop from the recurrent tumor by CT are discussed, and references from the literature about the possibilities of successful visualization of the afferent jejunal loop are cited. Possible locations and CT appearances of the tumor recurrences are presented. An overview of the literature is provided.