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Markouli M, Papachristou A, Politis A, Boviatsis E, Piperi C. Emerging Role of the Slit/Roundabout (Robo) Signaling Pathway in Glioma Pathogenesis and Potential Therapeutic Options. Biomolecules 2024; 14:1231. [PMID: 39456164 PMCID: PMC11506736 DOI: 10.3390/biom14101231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2024] [Revised: 09/20/2024] [Accepted: 09/27/2024] [Indexed: 10/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Gliomas represent the most common primary Central Nervous System (CNS) tumors, characterized by increased heterogeneity, dysregulated intracellular signaling, extremely invasive properties, and a dismal prognosis. They are generally resistant to existing therapies and only a few molecular targeting options are currently available. In search of signal transduction pathways with a potential impact in glioma growth and immunotherapy, the Slit guidance ligands (Slits) and their Roundabout (Robo) family of receptors have been revealed as key regulators of tumor cells and their microenvironment. Recent evidence indicates the implication of the Slit/Robo signaling pathway in inflammation, cell migration, angiogenesis, and immune cell infiltration of gliomas, suppressing or promoting the expression of pivotal proteins, such as cell adhesion molecules, matrix metalloproteinases, interleukins, angiogenic growth factors, and immune checkpoints. Herein, we discuss recent data on the significant implication of the Slit/Robo signaling pathway in glioma pathology along with the respective targeting options, including immunotherapy, monoclonal antibody therapy, and protein expression modifiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Markouli
- Department of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece (A.P.); (A.P.)
- Department of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Athina Papachristou
- Department of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece (A.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Anastasios Politis
- Department of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece (A.P.); (A.P.)
- Second Department of Neurosurgery, “Attikon” University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece;
| | - Efstathios Boviatsis
- Second Department of Neurosurgery, “Attikon” University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece;
| | - Christina Piperi
- Department of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece (A.P.); (A.P.)
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Wang L, Chen Y, Wu H, Yu HH, Ma L. Slit2-Robo4 signal pathway and tight junction in intestine mediate LPS-induced inflammation in mice. Eur J Med Res 2024; 29:349. [PMID: 38937814 PMCID: PMC11209965 DOI: 10.1186/s40001-024-01894-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sepsis is one of the most common clinical diseases, which is characterized by a serious and uncontrollable inflammatory response. LPS-induced inflammation is a critical pathological event in sepsis, but the underlying mechanism has not yet been fully elucidated. METHODS The animal model was established for two batches. In the first batch of experiments, Adult C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into control group and LPS (5 mg/kg, i.p.)group . In the second batch of experiments, mice were randomly divided into control group, LPS group, and LPS+VX765(10 mg/kg, i.p., an inhibitor of NLRP3 inflammasome) group. After 24 hours, mice were anesthetized with isoflurane, blood and intestinal tissue were collected for tissue immunohistochemistry, Western blot analysis and ELISA assays. RESULTS The C57BL/6J mice injected with LPS for twenty-four hours could exhibit severe inflammatory reaction including an increased IL-1β, IL-18 in serum and activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in intestine. The injection of VX765 could reverse these effects induced by LPS. These results indicated that the increased level of IL-1β and IL-18 in serum induced by LPS is related to the increased intestinal permeability and activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. In the second batch of experiments, results of western blot and immunohistochemistry showed that Slit2 and Robo4 were significant decreased in intestine of LPS group, while the expression of VEGF was significant increased. Meanwhile, the protein level of tight junction protein ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-5 were significantly lower than in control group, which could also be reversed by VX765 injection. CONCLUSIONS In this study, we revealed that Slit2-Robo4 signaling pathway and tight junction in intestine may be involved in LPS-induced inflammation in mice, which may account for the molecular mechanism of sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lv Wang
- Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200003, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingtai Chen
- Emergency Department, Baoshan Branch of Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, 200444, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Wu
- Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200003, People's Republic of China
| | - He-Hua Yu
- Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200003, People's Republic of China.
| | - Linhao Ma
- Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, 200003, People's Republic of China.
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Patnam M, Dommaraju SR, Masood F, Herbst P, Chang JH, Hu WY, Rosenblatt MI, Azar DT. Lymphangiogenesis Guidance Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications in Pathological States of the Cornea. Cells 2023; 12:319. [PMID: 36672254 PMCID: PMC9856498 DOI: 10.3390/cells12020319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Corneal lymphangiogenesis is one component of the neovascularization observed in several inflammatory pathologies of the cornea including dry eye disease and corneal graft rejection. Following injury, corneal (lymph)angiogenic privilege is impaired, allowing ingrowth of blood and lymphatic vessels into the previously avascular cornea. While the mechanisms underlying pathological corneal hemangiogenesis have been well described, knowledge of the lymphangiogenesis guidance mechanisms in the cornea is relatively scarce. Various signaling pathways are involved in lymphangiogenesis guidance in general, each influencing one or multiple stages of lymphatic vessel development. Most endogenous factors that guide corneal lymphatic vessel growth or regression act via the vascular endothelial growth factor C signaling pathway, a central regulator of lymphangiogenesis. Several exogenous factors have recently been repurposed and shown to regulate corneal lymphangiogenesis, uncovering unique signaling pathways not previously known to influence lymphatic vessel guidance. A strong understanding of the relevant lymphangiogenesis guidance mechanisms can facilitate the development of targeted anti-lymphangiogenic therapeutics for corneal pathologies. In this review, we examine the current knowledge of lymphatic guidance cues, their regulation of inflammatory states in the cornea, and recently discovered anti-lymphangiogenic therapeutic modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehul Patnam
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Sunil R. Dommaraju
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Faisal Masood
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Paula Herbst
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Jin-Hong Chang
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Wen-Yang Hu
- Department of Urology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Mark I. Rosenblatt
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Dimitri T. Azar
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Illinois Eye and Ear Infirmary, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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Li Y, Pan M, Lu T, Yu D, Liu C, Wang Z, Hu G. RAF1 promotes lymphatic metastasis of hypopharyngeal carcinoma via regulating LAGE1: an experimental research. J Transl Med 2022; 20:255. [PMID: 35668458 PMCID: PMC9172115 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-022-03468-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lymphatic metastasis was an independent prognostic risk factor for hypopharyngeal carcinoma and was the main cause of treatment failure. The purpose of this study was to screen the differential genes and investigate the mechanism of lymphatic metastasis in hypopharyngeal carcinoma. METHODS Transcriptome sequencing was performed on primary tumors of patients, and differential genes were screened by bioinformatics analysis. The expression of differential genes was verified by qRT-PCR, western-blotting and immunohistochemical, and prognostic value was analyzed by Kaplan-Meier and log-rank test and Cox's test. Next, FADU and SCC15 cell lines were used to demonstrate the function of differential genes both in vitro by EdU, Flow cytometry, Wound Healing and Transwell assays and in vivo by a foot-pad xenograft mice model. Proteomic sequencing was performed to screen relevant targets. In addition, in vitro and in vivo experiments were conducted to verify the mechanism of lymphatic metastasis. RESULTS Results of transcriptome sequencing showed that RAF1 was a significantly differential gene in lymphatic metastasis and was an independent prognostic risk factor. In vitro experiments suggested that decreased expression of RAF1 could inhibit proliferation, migration and invasion of tumor cells and promote apoptosis. In vivo experiments indicated that RAF1 could promote tumor growth and lymphatic metastasis. Proteomic sequencing and subsequent experiments suggested that LAGE1 could promote development of tumor and lymphatic metastasis, and was regulated by RAF1. CONCLUSIONS It suggests that RAF1 can promote lymphatic metastasis of hypopharyngeal carcinoma by regulating LAGE1, and provide a basis for the exploring of novel therapeutic target and ultimately provide new guidance for the establishment of intelligent diagnosis and precise treatment of hypopharyngeal carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanshi Li
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Min Pan
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Tao Lu
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Dan Yu
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Chuan Liu
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Zhihai Wang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Guohua Hu
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.
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Rezzola S, Sigmund EC, Halin C, Ronca R. The lymphatic vasculature: An active and dynamic player in cancer progression. Med Res Rev 2021; 42:576-614. [PMID: 34486138 PMCID: PMC9291933 DOI: 10.1002/med.21855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The lymphatic vasculature has been widely described and explored for its key functions in fluid homeostasis and in the organization and modulation of the immune response. Besides transporting immune cells, lymphatic vessels play relevant roles in tumor growth and tumor cell dissemination. Cancer cells that have invaded into afferent lymphatics are propagated to tumor‐draining lymph nodes (LNs), which represent an important hub for metastatic cell arrest and growth, immune modulation, and secondary dissemination to distant sites. In recent years many studies have reported new mechanisms by which the lymphatic vasculature affects cancer progression, ranging from induction of lymphangiogenesis to metastatic niche preconditioning or immune modulation. In this review, we provide an up‐to‐date description of lymphatic organization and function in peripheral tissues and in LNs and the changes induced to this system by tumor growth and progression. We will specifically focus on the reported interactions that occur between tumor cells and lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs), as well as on interactions between immune cells and LECs, both in the tumor microenvironment and in tumor‐draining LNs. Moreover, the most recent prognostic and therapeutic implications of lymphatics in cancer will be reported and discussed in light of the new immune‐modulatory roles that have been ascribed to LECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Rezzola
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Elena C Sigmund
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Cornelia Halin
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roberto Ronca
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
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Pan X, Xu S, Zhou Z, Wang F, Mao L, Li H, Wu C, Wang J, Huang Y, Li D, Wang C, Pan J. Fibroblast growth factor-2 alleviates the capillary leakage and inflammation in sepsis. Mol Med 2020; 26:108. [PMID: 33187467 PMCID: PMC7662026 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-020-00221-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Acute lung injury (ALI), which is induced by numerous pathogenic factors, especially sepsis, can generate alveolar damage, pulmonary edema and vascular hyper-permeability ultimately leading to severe hypoxemia. Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2) is an important member of the FGF family associated with endothelial cell migration and proliferation, and injury repairment. Here, we conducted this study aiming to evaluate the therapeutic effect of FGF2 in sepsis-induced ALI. Methods Recombinant FGF2 was abdominally injected into septic mice induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP), and then the inflammatory factors of lung tissue, vascular permeability and lung injury-related indicators based on protein levels and gene expression were detected. In vitro, human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (HPMEC) and mouse peritoneal macrophages (PMs) were challenged by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) with or without FGF2 administration in different groups, and then changes in inflammation indicators and cell permeability ability were tested. Results The results revealed that FGF2 treatment reduced inflammation response, attenuated pulmonary capillary leakage, alleviated lung injury and improved survival in septic mice. The endothelial injury and macrophages inflammation induced by LPS were inhibited by FGF2 administration via AKT/P38/NF-κB signaling pathways. Conclusion These findings indicated a therapeutic role of FGF2 in ALI through ameliorating capillary leakage and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Pan
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Shunyao Xu
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Zhen Zhou
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, Hangzhou Third Hospital, Hangzhou, 310000, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Fen Wang
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Lingjie Mao
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Hao Li
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Caixia Wu
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Junfeng Wang
- The Yiwu Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Jinhua, 322000, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Yueyue Huang
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Dequan Li
- Department of Traumatology Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
| | - Cong Wang
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
| | - Jingye Pan
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
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Huo Z, Su Y, Dong Y, Zheng Y, Zhang Q, Duan Y, Wang G. Rho-kinase inhibition by Fasudil promotes tumor maturation and apoptosis in small-cell lung cancer. Am J Transl Res 2020; 12:4354-4370. [PMID: 32913511 PMCID: PMC7476155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) is a poorly differentiated neuroendocrine neoplasm with inadequate therapeutic options. Fasudil is a Rho-associated protein kinase 1 and 2 (ROCK1/2) inhibitor whose clinical indications remain limited in cardiocerebrovascular diseases. This study aimed to report a possible implication of Fasudil for SCLC. The expression and prognostic value of ROCK1/2 were investigated immunohistochemically in surgical specimens. The positive rates of ROCK1 (77/113, 68.1%) and ROCK2 (94/113, 83.2%) were distinctly higher in SCLC than in other lung neuroendocrine tumors. The high expression level of ROCK1 was related to the poor long-term survival of patients, especially in the classic SCLC subtype. In vitro, SCLC cell line treated with Fasudil exhibited synapse-like morphologic change, accompanied by a reduction in the expression levels of c-myc and cyclin D1. Cell cycle arrest was further demonstrated, accompanied by sensitivity to starvation-induced apoptosis, indicating tumor maturation. In addition, RNA-seq identified hundreds of differentially expressed genes involved in the positive regulation of neuron differentiation, stem cell differentiation, cell development, and nervous system development. Finally, Fasudil inhibited SCLC growth, promoted structural maturity, and induced apoptosis in BALB/c nude mice xenograft model. In conclusion, these results indicated a potential and novel application of Fasudil for SCLC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zitian Huo
- Institute of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
- Department of Pathology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
| | - Yinxia Su
- Institute of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
- Department of Pathology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
| | - Yuting Dong
- Institute of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
- Department of Pathology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
| | - Yiyun Zheng
- Institute of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Institute of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
- Department of Pathology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
| | - Yaqi Duan
- Institute of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
- Department of Pathology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
| | - Guoping Wang
- Institute of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
- Department of Pathology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhan 430030, P. R. China
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Wang Z, Xu Q, Zhang N, Du X, Xu G, Yan X. CD146, from a melanoma cell adhesion molecule to a signaling receptor. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2020; 5:148. [PMID: 32782280 PMCID: PMC7421905 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-020-00259-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
CD146 was originally identified as a melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MCAM) and highly expressed in many tumors and endothelial cells. However, the evidence that CD146 acts as an adhesion molecule to mediate a homophilic adhesion through the direct interactions between CD146 and itself is still lacking. Recent evidence revealed that CD146 is not merely an adhesion molecule, but also a cellular surface receptor of miscellaneous ligands, including some growth factors and extracellular matrixes. Through the bidirectional interactions with its ligands, CD146 is actively involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes of cells. Overexpression of CD146 can be observed in most of malignancies and is implicated in nearly every step of the development and progression of cancers, especially vascular and lymphatic metastasis. Thus, immunotherapy against CD146 would provide a promising strategy to inhibit metastasis, which accounts for the majority of cancer-associated deaths. Therefore, to deepen the understanding of CD146, we review the reports describing the newly identified ligands of CD146 and discuss the implications of these findings in establishing novel strategies for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoqing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101, Beijing, China.
| | - Qingji Xu
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101, Beijing, China
- College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
| | - Nengwei Zhang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Hepatobiliary Tumor Surgery, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, 100038, Beijing, China
| | - Xuemei Du
- Departments of Pathology, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, 100038, Beijing, China
| | - Guangzhong Xu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Hepatobiliary Tumor Surgery, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, 100038, Beijing, China
| | - Xiyun Yan
- Key Laboratory of Protein and Peptide Pharmaceuticals, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101, Beijing, China.
- College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China.
- Nanozyme Medical Center, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China.
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Robo4 contributes to the turnover of Peyer's patch B cells. Mucosal Immunol 2020; 13:245-256. [PMID: 31772321 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-019-0230-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
All leukocytes can get entrance into the draining lymph nodes via the afferent lymphatics but only lymphoid cells can leave the nodes. The molecular mechanisms behind this phenomenon have remained unknown. We employed genome wide microarray analyses of the subcapsular sinus and lymphatic sinus (LS) endothelial cells and found Robo4 to be selectively expressed on LS lymphatics. Further analyses showed high Robo4 expression in lymphatic vessels of Peyer's patches, which only have efferent lymphatic vessels. In functional assays, Robo4-deficient animals showed accumulation of naïve B cells (CD19+/CD62Lhi/CD44lo) in Peyer's patches, whereas no difference was seen within other lymphocyte subtypes. Short-term lymphocyte homing via high endothelial venules to peripheral and mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer's patches was also slightly impaired in Robo4 knockout animals. These results show for the first time, selective expression of Robo4 in the efferent arm of the lymphatics and its role in controlling the turnover of a subset of B lymphocytes from Peyer's patches.
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Naicker T, Phoswa WN, Onyangunga OA, Gathiram P, Moodley J. Angiogenesis, Lymphangiogenesis, and the Immune Response in South African Preeclamptic Women Receiving HAART. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20153728. [PMID: 31366152 PMCID: PMC6696390 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20153728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose of the review: This review highlights the role of angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and immune markers in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated preeclamptic (PE) pregnancies in an attempt to unravel the mysteries underlying the duality of both conditions in South Africa. Recent findings: Studies demonstrate that HIV-infected pregnant women develop PE at a lower frequency than uninfected women. In contrast, women receiving highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) are more inclined to develop PE, stemming from an imbalance of angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and immune response. Summary: In view of the paradoxical effect of HIV infection on PE development, this study examines angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and immune markers in the highly HIV endemic area of KwaZulu-Natal. We believe that HAART re-constitutes the immune response in PE, thereby predisposing women to PE development. This susceptibility is due to an imbalance in the angiogenic/lymphangiogenic/immune response as compared to normotensive pregnant women. Further large-scale studies are urgently required to investigate the effect of the duration of HAART on PE development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thajasvarie Naicker
- Optics and Imaging Centre, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4013, South Africa.
| | - Wendy N Phoswa
- Discipline of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Nelson R Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4013, South Africa.
| | - Onankoy A Onyangunga
- Optics and Imaging Centre, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4013, South Africa
| | - Premjith Gathiram
- Women's Health and HIV Research Group. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Clinical Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4013, South Africa
| | - Jagidesa Moodley
- Women's Health and HIV Research Group. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Clinical Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4013, South Africa
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11
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Tong M, Jun T, Nie Y, Hao J, Fan D. The Role of the Slit/Robo Signaling Pathway. J Cancer 2019; 10:2694-2705. [PMID: 31258778 PMCID: PMC6584916 DOI: 10.7150/jca.31877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The Slit family is a family of secreted proteins that play important roles in various physiologic and pathologic activities via interacting with Robo receptors. Slit/Robo signaling was first identified in the nervous system, where it functions in neuronal axon guidance; nevertheless, an increasing number of studies have shown that Slit/Robo signaling even regulates other activities, such as angiogenesis, inflammatory cell chemotaxis, tumor cell migration and metastasis. Although the precise role of the ligand-receptor in organisms has been obscure and the conclusions drawn are sometimes paradoxical, tremendous advances in understanding the Slit/Robo signaling pathway have been made. As such, our review summarizes the characteristics of the Slit/Robo signaling pathway and its role in various cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingfu Tong
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100020, China.,State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Tie Jun
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Yongzhan Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Jianyu Hao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100020, China
| | - Daiming Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
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12
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Cheng MX, Li JZ, Chen Y, Cao D, Gong JP, Tu B. VEGF-C attenuates ischemia reperfusion injury of liver graft in rats. Transpl Immunol 2019; 54:59-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trim.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 02/09/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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13
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Jiang S, Du Y, Liu D, He J, Huang Y, Qin K, Zhou X. Inhibitory Effect of Slit2-N on VEGF165-induced proliferation of vascular endothelia via Slit2-N-Robo4-Akt pathway in choroidal neovascularization. Cell Cycle 2019; 18:1241-1253. [PMID: 31081721 DOI: 10.1080/15384101.2019.1617005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Researches have been focusing on the role of Slit2 in angiogenesis, specifically in cell migration and vessel permeability. Nevertheless, the role of Slit2-N, the bioactive fragment of Slit2, in the proliferation of vascular endothelia in choroidal neovascularization and some related mechanisms have not been studied yet. Thus, our study aimed to explore the role of Slit2-N in proliferation of vascular endothelia and the related mechanisms in choroidal neovascularization. Fluorescein isothiocyanate perfusion and HE staining were performed to evaluate volumes of choroidal neovascularization lesions. The effect of Slit2-N on VEGF165-induced cell proliferation and some related mechanisms were detected by CCK8 assay, flow cytometry, siRNA transfection, and western blotting. We found that Slit2-N reduced volumes of laser-induced choroidal neovascularization networks in vivo. Results of the in vitro study showed Slit2-N reduced VEGF165-induced cell proliferation of both human umbilical vascular endothelial cells and human microvascular endothelial cells possibly via activation of AKT rather than that of ERK1/2. Additionally, Robo4, one of the receptors binding to Slit2-N, was involved in the inhibitory effect of Slit2-N. Generally, our findings revealed the inhibitory role of Slit2-N in proliferation of vascular endothelia and some related mechanisms, and presented some potential targets, molecules along Slit2-N-Robo4-AKT axis, to choroidal neovascularization therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoqiu Jiang
- a Department of Ophthalmology , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing , China.,b Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology , Chongqing Eye Institute , Chongqing , China
| | - Yong Du
- a Department of Ophthalmology , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing , China.,b Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology , Chongqing Eye Institute , Chongqing , China
| | - Danning Liu
- a Department of Ophthalmology , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing , China
| | - Junchi He
- c Department of Neurosurgery , the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing , China
| | - Yike Huang
- b Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology , Chongqing Eye Institute , Chongqing , China.,d Department of Ophthalmology , the First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing , China
| | - Ke Qin
- a Department of Ophthalmology , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing , China.,b Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology , Chongqing Eye Institute , Chongqing , China
| | - Xiyuan Zhou
- a Department of Ophthalmology , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing , China.,b Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology , Chongqing Eye Institute , Chongqing , China
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14
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Tang Y, Zhou X. Antagonistic effects of exogenous Slit2 on VEGF-induced choroidal endothelial cell migration and tube formation. Exp Ther Med 2019; 17:2443-2450. [PMID: 30906431 PMCID: PMC6425150 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2019.7235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is involved in the pathogenesis of choroidal neovascularization. The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of exogenous slit guidance ligand 2 (Slit2) on VEGF-induced choroidal endothelial cell (CEC) migration and tube formation. The protein and mRNA expression levels of Slit2, roundabout guidance receptor (Robo) 1 and Robo4 in CECs were evaluated by immunocytochemistry and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analyses, respectively. Western blot analysis was used to assess Robo4 protein levels in CECs exposed to increasing concentrations (0, 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 ng/ml) of exogenous Slit2. The effects of exogenous Slit2 (125 ng/ml) on VEGF-induced CEC migration and tube formation were also examined. CECs expressed Slit2 and Robo4, but lacked Robo1 expression, at the mRNA and protein levels. Robo4 protein expression increased significantly following treatment with 50–150 ng/ml exogenous Slit2. No significant difference in Robo4 protein expression was observed in CECs treated with 125 and 150 ng/ml Slit2. VEGF-induced CEC migration and tube formation were significantly reduced following treatment with 125 ng/ml exogenous Slit2. In conclusion, these results indicate that Robo4 is expressed in CECs. In addition, exogenous Slit2 may regulate Robo4 expression and partially inhibit VEGF-induced CEC migration and tube formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanling Tang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, P.R. China
| | - Xiyuan Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, P.R. China
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15
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Wu MF, Chuang CY, Lin P, Chen WT, Su SE, Liao CY, Jan MS, Chang JT. Lung Tumorigenesis Alters the Expression of Slit2-exon15 Splicing Variants in Tumor Microenvironment. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11020166. [PMID: 30717252 PMCID: PMC6406468 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11020166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Slit2 expression is downregulated in various cancers, including lung cancer. We identified two Slit2 splicing variants at exon15—Slit2-WT and Slit2-ΔE15. In the RT-PCR analyses, the Slit2-WT isoform was predominantly expressed in all the lung cancer specimens and in their normal lung counterparts, whereas Slit2-ΔE15 was equivalently or predominantly expressed in 41% of the pneumothorax specimens. A kRasG12D transgenic mice system was used to study the effects of tumorigenesis on the expressions of the Slit2-exon15 isoforms. The results revealed that a kRasG12D-induced lung tumor increased the Slit2-WT/Slit2-ΔE15 ratio and total Slit2 expression level. However, the lung tumors generated via a tail vein injection of lung cancer cells decreased the Slit2-WT/Slit2-ΔE15 ratio and total Slit2 expression level. Interestingly, the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung inflammation also decreased the Slit2-WT/Slit2-ΔE15 ratio. Since Slit2 functions as an anti-inflammatory factor, the expression of Slit2 increases in kRasG12D lungs, which indicates that Slit2 suppresses immunity during tumorigenesis. However, an injection of lung cancer cells via the tail vein and the LPS-induced lung inflammation both decreased the Slit2 expression. The increased Slit2 in the tumor microenvironment was mostly Slit2-WT, which lacks growth inhibitory activity. Thus, the results of our study suggested that the upregulation of Slit2-WT, but not Slit2-ΔE15, in a cancer microenvironment is an important factor in suppressing immunity while not interfering with cancer growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Fang Wu
- School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan.
- Divisions of Medical Oncology and Pulmonary Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40201, Taiwan.
| | - Cheng-Yen Chuang
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 40705 Taiwan.
| | - Pinpin Lin
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan.
| | - Wei-Ting Chen
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan.
| | - Shang-Er Su
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan.
| | - Chen-Yi Liao
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan.
| | - Ming-Shiou Jan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan.
- Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chung-Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40201, Taiwan.
| | - Jinghua Tsai Chang
- Divisions of Medical Oncology and Pulmonary Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40201, Taiwan.
- Institute of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan.
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16
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Pircher A, Schäfer G, Eigentler A, Pichler R, Puhr M, Steiner E, Horninger W, Gunsilius E, Klocker H, Heidegger I. Robo 4 - the double-edged sword in prostate cancer: impact on cancer cell aggressiveness and tumor vasculature. Int J Med Sci 2019; 16:115-124. [PMID: 30662335 PMCID: PMC6332478 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.28735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The magic roundabout receptor 4 (Robo 4) is a tumor endothelial marker expressed in the vascular network of various tumor entities. However, the role of Robo 4 in prostate cancer (PCa), the second common cause of cancer death among men in -developed countries, has not been described yet. Thus, the present study investigates for the first time the impact of Robo 4 in PCa both in the clinical setting and in vitro. Methods and Results: Immunohistochemical analyses of benign and malignant prostate tissue samples of 95 PCa patients, who underwent radical prostatectomy (RPE), revealed a significant elevated expression of Robo 4 as well as its ligand Slit 2 protein in cancerous tissue compared to benign. Moreover, increased Robo 4 expression was associated with higher Gleason score and pT stage. In advanced stage we observed a hypothesis-generating trend that high Robo 4 and Slit 2 expression is associated with delayed development of tumor recurrence compared to patients with low Robo 4 and Slit 2 expression, respectively. In contrast to so far described exclusive expression of Robo 4 in the tumor vascular network, our analyses showed that in PCa Robo 4 is not only expressed in the tumor stroma but also in cancer epithelial cells. This finding was also confirmed in vitro as PC3 PCa cells express Robo 4 on mRNA as well as protein level. Overexpression of Robo 4 in PC3 as well as in Robo 4 negative DU145 and LNCaP PCa cells was associated with a significant decrease in cell-proliferation and cell-viability. Conclusion: In summary we observed that Robo 4 plays a considerable role in PCa development as it is expressed in cancer epithelial cells as well as in the surrounding tumor stroma. Moreover, higher histological tumor grade was associated with increased Robo 4 expression; controversially patients with high Robo 4 tend to exert lower biochemical recurrence possibly reflecting a protective role of Robo 4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Pircher
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Internal Medicine V, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Georg Schäfer
- Department of Pathology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Renate Pichler
- Department of Pathology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Martin Puhr
- Department of Urology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | | | - Eberhard Gunsilius
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Internal Medicine V, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Helmut Klocker
- Department of Urology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
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17
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Sakima M, Hayashi H, Mamun AA, Sato M. VEGFR-3 signaling is regulated by a G-protein activator, activator of G-protein signaling 8, in lymphatic endothelial cells. Exp Cell Res 2018; 368:13-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2018.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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18
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Langan SA, Navarro-Núñez L, Watson SP, Nash GB. Modulation of VEGF-induced migration and network formation by lymphatic endothelial cells: Roles of platelets and podoplanin. Platelets 2017; 29:486-495. [PMID: 28727496 PMCID: PMC6589745 DOI: 10.1080/09537104.2017.1336210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC) express the transmembrane receptor podoplanin whose only known endogenous ligand CLEC-2 is found on platelets. Both podoplanin and CLEC-2 are required for normal lymphangiogenesis as mice lacking either protein develop a blood-lymphatic mixing phenotype. We investigated the roles of podoplanin and its interaction with platelets in migration and tube formation by LEC. Addition of platelets or antibody-mediated crosslinking of podoplanin inhibited LEC migration induced by vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF-A or VEGF-C), but did not modify basal migration or the response to basic fibroblast growth factor or epidermal growth factor. In addition, platelets and podoplanin crosslinking disrupted networks of LEC formed in co-culture with fibroblasts. Depletion of podoplanin in LEC using siRNA negated the pro-migratory effect of VEGF-A and VEGF-C. Inhibition of RhoA or Rho-kinase reduced LEC migration induced by VEGF-C, but had no further effect after crosslinking of podoplanin, suggesting that podoplanin is required for signaling downstream of VEGF-receptors but upstream of RhoA. Together, these data reveal for the first time that podoplanin is an intrinsic specific regulator of VEGF-mediated migration and network formation in LEC and identify crosslinking of podoplanin by platelets or antibodies as mechanisms to modulate this pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey A Langan
- a Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
| | - Leyre Navarro-Núñez
- a Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
| | - Steve P Watson
- a Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
| | - Gerard B Nash
- a Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
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19
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Li GJ, Yang Y, Yang GK, Wan J, Cui DL, Ma ZH, Du LJ, Zhang GM. Slit2 suppresses endothelial cell proliferation and migration by inhibiting the VEGF-Notch signaling pathway. Mol Med Rep 2017; 15:1981-1988. [PMID: 28260032 PMCID: PMC5364956 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.6240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Slit homolog 2 (Slit2) is distributed in various tissues and participates in numerous cellular processes; however, the role of Slit2 in the regulation of angiogenesis remains controversial, since it has previously been reported to exert proangiogenic and antiangiogenic activities. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of Slit2 on vascular endothelial cell proliferation and migration in vitro, and to reveal the possible underlying signaling pathway. Aortic endothelial cells were isolated from Sprague Dawley rats and cultured. Cell proliferation assay, cell migration assay, immunocytochemistry and small interfering RNA transfection were subsequently performed. The results demonstrated that exogenous Slit2 administration markedly suppressed TNF-α-induced endothelial cell proliferation and migration in vitro. In addition, TNF-α application upregulated the protein expression levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and Notch in RAECs, whereas Slit2 administration downregulated VEGF and Notch expression in RAECs cultured in TNF-α conditioned medium. Further studies indicated that knockdown of VEGF suppressed the effects of TNF-α on the induction of RAEC proliferation and migration. VEGF knockdown-induced inhibition of RAEC proliferation and migration in TNF-α conditioned medium was also achieved without Slit2 administration. Furthermore, VEGF knockdown markedly decreased Notch1 and Notch2 expression. These results indicated that Slit2 suppresses TNF-α-induced vascular endothelial cell proliferation and migration in vitro by inhibiting the VEGF-Notch signaling pathway. Therefore, Slit2 may inhibit the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells during vascular development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Jian Li
- Department of Vascular Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P.R. China
| | - Yong Yang
- Department of Vascular Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P.R. China
| | - Guo-Kai Yang
- Department of Vascular Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P.R. China
| | - Jia Wan
- Department of Vascular Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P.R. China
| | - Dao-Lei Cui
- Department of Vascular Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P.R. China
| | - Zhen-Huan Ma
- Department of Vascular Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P.R. China
| | - Ling-Juan Du
- Department of Vascular Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P.R. China
| | - Gui-Min Zhang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650032, P.R. China
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20
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Jin Fu Kang Oral Liquid Inhibits Lymphatic Endothelial Cells Formation and Migration. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2016; 2016:3635209. [PMID: 27698675 PMCID: PMC5028853 DOI: 10.1155/2016/3635209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Jin Fu Kang (JFK), an oral liquid prescription of Chinese herbal drugs, has been clinically available for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Lymphangiogenesis is a primary event in the process of cancer development and metastasis, and the formation and migration of lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) play a key role in the lymphangiogenesis. To assess the activity of stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) and the coeffect of SDF-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) on the formation and migration of LECs and clarify the inhibitory effects of JFK on the LECs, the LECs were differentiated from CD34+/VEGFR-3+ endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), and JFK-containing serums were prepared from rats. SDF-1 and VEGF-C both induced the differentiation of CD34+/VEGFR-3+ EPCs towards LECs and enhanced the LECs migration. Couse of SDF-1 and VEGF-C displayed an additive effect on the LECs formation but not on their migration. JFK inhibited the formation and migration of LECs, and the inhibitory effects were most probably via regulation of the SDF-1/CXCR4 and VEGF-C/VEGFR-3 axes. The current finding suggested that JFK might inhibit NSCLC through antilymphangiogenesis and also provided a potential to discover antilymphangiogenesis agents from natural resources.
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21
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Abstract
Slits are secreted proteins that bind to Roundabout (Robo) receptors. Slit-Robo signaling is best known for mediating axon repulsion in the developing nervous system. However, in recent years the functional repertoire of Slits and Robo has expanded tremendously and Slit-Robo signaling has been linked to roles in neurogenesis, angiogenesis and cancer progression among other processes. Likewise, our mechanistic understanding of Slit-Robo signaling has progressed enormously. Here, we summarize new insights into Slit-Robo evolutionary and system-dependent diversity, receptor-ligand interactions, signaling crosstalk and receptor activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Blockus
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 Rue Moreau, Paris 75012, France Ecole des Neurosciences de Paris, Paris F-75005, France
| | - Alain Chédotal
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 Rue Moreau, Paris 75012, France
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22
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Klein S, Dieterich LC, Mathelier A, Chong C, Sliwa-Primorac A, Hong YK, Shin JW, Lizio M, Itoh M, Kawaji H, Lassmann T, Daub CO, Arner E, Carninci P, Hayashizaki Y, Forrest ARR, Wasserman WW, Detmar M. DeepCAGE transcriptomics identify HOXD10 as a transcription factor regulating lymphatic endothelial responses to VEGF-C. J Cell Sci 2016; 129:2573-85. [PMID: 27199372 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.186767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphangiogenesis plays a crucial role during development, in cancer metastasis and in inflammation. Activation of VEGFR-3 (also known as FLT4) by VEGF-C is one of the main drivers of lymphangiogenesis, but the transcriptional events downstream of VEGFR-3 activation are largely unknown. Recently, we identified a wave of immediate early transcription factors that are upregulated in human lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) within the first 30 to 80 min after VEGFR-3 activation. Expression of these transcription factors must be regulated by additional pre-existing transcription factors that are rapidly activated by VEGFR-3 signaling. Using transcription factor activity analysis, we identified the homeobox transcription factor HOXD10 to be specifically activated at early time points after VEGFR-3 stimulation, and to regulate expression of immediate early transcription factors, including NR4A1. Gain- and loss-of-function studies revealed that HOXD10 is involved in LECs migration and formation of cord-like structures. Furthermore, HOXD10 regulates expression of VE-cadherin, claudin-5 and NOS3 (also known as e-NOS), and promotes lymphatic endothelial permeability. Taken together, these results reveal an important and unanticipated role of HOXD10 in the regulation of VEGFR-3 signaling in lymphatic endothelial cells, and in the control of lymphangiogenesis and permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Klein
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Lothar C Dieterich
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Anthony Mathelier
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Child and Family Research Institute, Department of Medical Genetics, University British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 4H4
| | - Chloé Chong
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Adriana Sliwa-Primorac
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Young-Kwon Hong
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Jay W Shin
- RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Marina Lizio
- RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Itoh
- RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Hideya Kawaji
- RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Timo Lassmann
- RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western Australia, Subiaco, Western Australia 6008, Australia
| | - Carsten O Daub
- RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Erik Arner
- RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | | | - Piero Carninci
- RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Yoshihide Hayashizaki
- RIKEN Preventive Medicine and Diagnosis Innovation Program, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Alistair R R Forrest
- RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan Cancer and Cell Biology Division, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, QEII Medical Centre and Centre for Medical Research, the University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Wyeth W Wasserman
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Child and Family Research Institute, Department of Medical Genetics, University British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 4H4
| | - Michael Detmar
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8093, Switzerland
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23
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Park JH, Pak HJ, Riew TR, Shin YJ, Lee MY. Increased expression of Slit2 and its receptors Robo1 and Robo4 in reactive astrocytes of the rat hippocampus after transient forebrain ischemia. Brain Res 2016; 1634:45-56. [PMID: 26764532 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.12.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Revised: 12/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Slit2 is a secreted glycoprotein that was originally identified as a chemorepulsive factor in the developing brain; however, it was recently reported that Slit2 is associated with adult neuronal function including a variety of pathophysiological processes. To elucidate whether Slit2 is implicated in the pathophysiology of ischemic injury, we investigated the temporal changes and cellular localization of Slit2 and its predominant receptors, Robo1 and Robo4, for 28 days after transient forebrain ischemia. Slit2 and its receptors had similar overall expression patterns in the control and ischemic hippocampi. The ligand and receptors were constitutively expressed in hippocampal neurons in control animals; however, in animals with ischemic injury, their upregulation was detected in reactive astrocytes, but not in neurons or activated microglia, in the CA1 region. Astroglial induction of Slit2 and its receptors occurred by day 3 after reperfusion, and appeared to increase progressively until the final time point on day 28. Their temporal expression patterns overlapped with the time period in which reactive astrocytes undergo dynamic structural changes and appear hypertrophic in the ischemic hippocampus. The immunohistochemical data were consistent with the results of the immunoblot analyses, indicating that the expression of Slit2 and Robo increased progressively over the relatively long period of 28 days examined here. Collectively, these results suggest that Slit2/Robo signaling may be involved in regulating the astroglial reaction via autocrine or paracrine mechanisms in post-ischemic processes. Moreover, this may contribute to the dynamic morphological changes that occur in astrocytes in response to ischemic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joo-Hee Park
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 137-701 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ha-Jin Pak
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 137-701 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Ryong Riew
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 137-701 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoo-Jin Shin
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 137-701 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Mun-Yong Lee
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic Neuroscience Institute, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 137-701 Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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24
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Eshita Y, Ji RC, Onishi M, Kobayashi T, Mizuno M, Yoshida J, Kubota N, Onishi Y. Medicinal facilities to B16F10 melanoma cells for distant metastasis control with a supramolecular complex by DEAE-dextran-MMA copolymer/paclitaxel. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2016; 5:38-50. [PMID: 25787338 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-014-0213-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The resistance of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic drugs (MDR) is a major problem to be solved. A supramolecular DEAE-dextran-MMA copolymer (DDMC)/paclitaxel (PTX) complex was obtained by using PTX as the guest and DDMC as the host having 50-300 nm in diameter. The drug resistance of B16F10 melanoma cells to paclitaxel was observed, but there is no drug resistance of melanoma cells to the DDMC/PTX complex in vitro. The cell death rate was determined using Michaelis-Menten kinetics, as the DDMC/PTX complex promoted allosteric supramolecular reaction to tubulin. The DDMC/PTX complex showed a very superior anti-cancer activity to paclitaxel alone in vivo. The median survival time (MST) of the saline, PTX, DDMC/PTX4 (particle size, 50 nm), and DDMC/PTX5 (particle size, 290 nm) groups were 120 h (T/C, 1.0), 176 h (T/C, 1.46), 328 h (T/C, 2.73), and 280 h (T/C, 2.33), respectively. The supramolecular DDMC/PTX complex showed the twofold effectiveness of PTX alone (p < 0.036). Histochemical analysis indicated that the administration of DDMC/PTX complex decreased distant metastasis and increased the survival of mice. A mouse of DDMC/PTX4 group in vivo was almost curing after small dermatorrhagia owing to its anti-angiogenesis, and it will be the hemorrhagic necrotic symptom of tumor by the release of "tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)" cytokine. As the result, the medicinal action of the DDMC/PTX complex will suppress the tumor-associated action of M2 macrophages and will control the metastasis of cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Eshita
- Department of Infectious Disease Control, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Hasama-machi, Yufu, Oita, 879-5593, Japan,
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Fink DM, Steele MM, Hollingsworth MA. The lymphatic system and pancreatic cancer. Cancer Lett 2015; 381:217-36. [PMID: 26742462 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2015.11.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Revised: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This review summarizes current knowledge of the biology, pathology and clinical understanding of lymphatic invasion and metastasis in pancreatic cancer. We discuss the clinical and biological consequences of lymphatic invasion and metastasis, including paraneoplastic effects on immune responses and consider the possible benefit of therapies to treat tumors that are localized to lymphatics. A review of current techniques and methods to study interactions between tumors and lymphatics is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darci M Fink
- Eppley Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5950, USA
| | - Maria M Steele
- Eppley Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5950, USA
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Zhang X, Jiang S, Yu J, Kuzontkoski PM, Groopman JE. Cocaine enhances HIV-1 gp120-induced lymphatic endothelial dysfunction in the lung. Physiol Rep 2015; 3:3/8/e12482. [PMID: 26311830 PMCID: PMC4562568 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary complications are common in both AIDS patients and cocaine users. We addressed the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which HIV and cocaine may partner to induce their deleterious effects. Using primary lung lymphatic endothelial cells (L-LECs), we examined how cocaine and HIV-1 gp120, alone and together, modulate signaling and functional properties of L-LECs. We found that brief cocaine exposure activated paxillin and induced cytoskeletal rearrangement, while sustained exposure increased fibronectin (FN) expression, decreased Robo4 expression, and enhanced the permeability of L-LEC monolayers. Moreover, incubating L-LECs with both cocaine and HIV-1 gp120 exacerbated hyperpermeability, significantly enhanced apoptosis, and further impaired in vitro wound healing as compared with cocaine alone. Our studies also suggested that the sigma-1 receptor (Sigma-1R) and the dopamine-4 receptor (D4R) are involved in cocaine-induced pathology in L-LECs. Seeking clinical correlation, we found that FN levels in sera and lung tissue of HIV(+) donors were significantly elevated as compared to HIV(-) donors. Our in vitro data demonstrate that cocaine and HIV-1 gp120 induce dysfunction and damage of lung lymphatics, and suggest that cocaine use may exacerbate pulmonary edema and fibrosis associated with HIV infection. Continued exploration of the interplay between cocaine and HIV should assist the design of therapeutics to ameliorate HIV-induced pulmonary disorders within the drug using population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefeng Zhang
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Susan Jiang
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jinlong Yu
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA Department of Psychiatry, Mclean Hospital Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Paula M Kuzontkoski
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA DynaMed, EBSCO Information Services, Ipswich, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jerome E Groopman
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Nieminen T, Toivanen PI, Laakkonen JP, Heikura T, Kaikkonen MU, Airenne KJ, Ylä-Herttuala S. Slit2 modifies VEGF-induced angiogenic responses in rabbit skeletal muscle via reduced eNOS activity. Cardiovasc Res 2015; 107:267-76. [DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvv161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
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Youngblood V, Wang S, Song W, Walter D, Hwang Y, Chen J, Brantley-Sieders DM. Elevated Slit2 Activity Impairs VEGF-Induced Angiogenesis and Tumor Neovascularization in EphA2-Deficient Endothelium. Mol Cancer Res 2014; 13:524-37. [PMID: 25504371 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-14-0142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Angiogenic remodeling during embryonic development and in adult tissue homeostasis is orchestrated by cooperative signaling between several distinct molecular pathways, which are often exploited by tumors. Indeed, tumors upregulate proangiogenic molecules while simultaneously suppressing angiostatic pathways to recruit blood vessels for growth, survival, and metastatic spread. Understanding how cancers exploit proangiogenic and antiangiogenic signals is a key step in developing new, molecularly targeted antiangiogenic therapies. While EphA2, a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), is required for VEGF-induced angiogenesis, the mechanism through which these pathways intersect remains unclear. Slit2 expression is elevated in EphA2-deficient endothelium, and here it is reported that inhibiting Slit activity rescues VEGF-induced angiogenesis in cell culture and in vivo, as well as VEGF-dependent tumor angiogenesis, in EphA2-deficient endothelial cells and animals. Moreover, blocking Slit activity or Slit2 expression in EphA2-deficient endothelial cells restores VEGF-induced activation of Src and Rac, both of which are required for VEGF-mediated angiogenesis. These data suggest that EphA2 suppression of Slit2 expression and Slit angiostatic activity enables VEGF-induced angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo, providing a plausible mechanism for impaired endothelial responses to VEGF in the absence of EphA2 function. IMPLICATIONS Modulation of angiostatic factor Slit2 by EphA2 receptor regulates endothelial responses to VEGF-mediated angiogenesis and tumor neovascularization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Youngblood
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Shan Wang
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Wenqiang Song
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Debra Walter
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Yoonha Hwang
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Jin Chen
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Department of Cellular and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Dana M Brantley-Sieders
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee. Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee.
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Secker GA, Harvey NL. VEGFR signaling during lymphatic vascular development: From progenitor cells to functional vessels. Dev Dyn 2014; 244:323-31. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Revised: 11/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Genevieve A. Secker
- Centre for Cancer Biology; University of South Australia, and SA Pathology; Adelaide Australia
| | - Natasha L. Harvey
- Centre for Cancer Biology; University of South Australia, and SA Pathology; Adelaide Australia
- School of Medicine; University of Adelaide; Adelaide Australia
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