1
|
Tryapkin OA, Kantemirov AV, Dyshlovoy SA, Prassolov VS, Spirin PV, von Amsberg G, Sidorova MA, Zhidkov ME. A New Mild Method for Synthesis of Marine Alkaloid Fascaplysin and Its Therapeutically Promising Derivatives. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:424. [PMID: 37623705 PMCID: PMC10455802 DOI: 10.3390/md21080424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Fascaplysin is a marine alkaloid which is considered to be a lead drug candidate due to its diverse and potent biological activity. As an anticancer agent, fascaplysin holds a great potential due to the multiple targets affected by this alkaloid in cancer cells, including inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) and induction of intrinsic apoptosis. At the same time, the studies on structural optimization are hampered by its rather high toxicity, mainly caused by DNA intercalation. In addition, the number of methods for the syntheses of its derivatives is limited. In the current study, we report a new two-step method of synthesis of fascaplysin derivatives based on low temperature UV quaternization for the synthesis of thermolabile 9-benzyloxyfascaplysin and 6-tert-butylfascaplysin. 9-Benzyloxyfascaplysin was used as the starting compound to obtain 9-hydroxyfascaplysin. However, the latter was found to be chemically highly unstable. 6-tert-Butylfascaplysin revealed a significant decrease in DNA intercalation when compared to fascaplysin, while cytotoxicity was only slightly reduced. Therefore, the impact of DNA intercalation for the cytotoxic effects of fascaplysin and its derivatives needs to be questioned.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oleg A. Tryapkin
- Department of Chemistry and Materials, Institute of High Technologies and Advanced Materials, FEFU Campus, Far Eastern Federal University, Ajax Bay 10, Russky Island, 690922 Vladivostok, Russia; (A.V.K.); (M.A.S.)
| | - Alexey V. Kantemirov
- Department of Chemistry and Materials, Institute of High Technologies and Advanced Materials, FEFU Campus, Far Eastern Federal University, Ajax Bay 10, Russky Island, 690922 Vladivostok, Russia; (A.V.K.); (M.A.S.)
| | - Sergey A. Dyshlovoy
- Department of Oncology, Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation with Section Pneumology, Hubertus Wald Tumorzentrum—University Cancer Center Hamburg (UCCH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (S.A.D.); (G.v.A.)
- Martini-Klinik Prostate Cancer Center, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Vladimir S. Prassolov
- Department of Cancer Cell Biology, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova 32, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.S.P.); (P.V.S.)
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova 32, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Pavel V. Spirin
- Department of Cancer Cell Biology, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova 32, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.S.P.); (P.V.S.)
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova 32, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Gunhild von Amsberg
- Department of Oncology, Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation with Section Pneumology, Hubertus Wald Tumorzentrum—University Cancer Center Hamburg (UCCH), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (S.A.D.); (G.v.A.)
- Martini-Klinik Prostate Cancer Center, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maria A. Sidorova
- Department of Chemistry and Materials, Institute of High Technologies and Advanced Materials, FEFU Campus, Far Eastern Federal University, Ajax Bay 10, Russky Island, 690922 Vladivostok, Russia; (A.V.K.); (M.A.S.)
| | - Maxim E. Zhidkov
- Department of Chemistry and Materials, Institute of High Technologies and Advanced Materials, FEFU Campus, Far Eastern Federal University, Ajax Bay 10, Russky Island, 690922 Vladivostok, Russia; (A.V.K.); (M.A.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Saxena R, Vekariya U, Tripathi R. HIV-1 Nef and host proteome analysis: Current perspective. Life Sci 2019; 219:322-328. [PMID: 30664855 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Proteome represents the set of proteins being produced by an organism at a given time. Comparative proteomic profiling of a healthy and diseased state is likely to reflect the dynamics of a disease process. Proteomic techniques are widely used to discover novel biomarkers and decipher mechanisms of HIV-1 pathogenesis. Proteomics is thus emerging as an indispensable tool of monitoring a disease process and intense interactions between HIV-1 and host. Nef is known to regulate various functions in the host to establish the state of infection. This review gives an overview of all proteomic studies done on HIV infection and HIV associated disorders including recent developments in Nef-host proteomic profiling. Here, we propose an emphasis on Nef based proteomic studies. We also discuss the future prospects and the technical and biological challenges involved in proteomic studies. Future studies with Nef related proteomic investigation are likely to identify more targets for diagnosis and therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reshu Saxena
- Toxicology and Experimental Medicine Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, U.P., India
| | - Umeshkumar Vekariya
- Toxicology and Experimental Medicine Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, U.P., India
| | - Rajkamal Tripathi
- Toxicology and Experimental Medicine Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, U.P., India.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Shen X, Nair B, Mahajan SD, Jiang X, Li J, Shen S, Tu C, Hsiao CB, Schwartz SA, Qu J. New Insights into the Disease Progression Control Mechanisms by Comparing Long-Term-Nonprogressors versus Normal-Progressors among HIV-1-Positive Patients Using an Ion Current-Based MS1 Proteomic Profiling. J Proteome Res 2015; 14:5225-39. [PMID: 26484939 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b00621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
For decades, epidemiological studies have found significant differences in the susceptibility to disease progression among HIV-carrying patients. One unique group of HIV-1-positive patients, the long-term-nonprogressors (LTNP), exhibits far superior ability in virus control compared with normal-progressors (NP), which proceed to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) much more rapidly. Nonetheless, elucidation of the underlying mechanisms of virus control in LTNP is highly valuable in disease management and treatment but remains poorly understood. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) have been known to play important roles in innate immune responses and thereby would be of great interest for the investigation of the mechanisms of virus defense in LTNP. Here, we described the first comparative proteome analysis of PBMC from LTNP (n = 10) and NP (n = 10) patients using a reproducible ion-current-based MS1 approach, which includes efficient and reproducible sample preparation and chromatographic separation followed by an optimized pipeline for protein identification and quantification. This strategy enables analysis of many biological samples in one set with high quantitative precision and extremely low missing data. In total, 925 unique proteins were quantified under stringent criteria without missing value in any of the 20 subjects, and 87 proteins showed altered expressions between the two patient groups. These proteins are implicated in key processes such as cytoskeleton organization, defense response, apoptosis regulation, intracellular transport, etc., which provided novel insights into the control of disease progressions in LTNP versus NP, and the expression and phosphorylation states of key regulators were further validated by immunoassay. For instance, (1) SAMH1, a potent and "hot" molecule facilitating HIV-1 defense, was for the first time found elevated in LTNP compared with NP or healthy controls; elevated proteins from IFN-α response pathway may also contribute to viral control in LTNP; (2) decreased proapoptotic protein ASC along with the elevation of antiapoptotic proteins may contribute to the less apoptotic profile in PBMC of LTNP; and (3) elevated actin polymerization and less microtubule assembly that impede viral protein transport were first observed in LTNP. These results not only enhanced the understanding of the mechanisms for nonprogression of LTNP, but also may afford highly valuable clues to direct therapeutic efforts. Moreover, this work also demonstrated the ion-current-based MS1 approach as a reliable tool for large-scale clinical research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomeng Shen
- The State of New York Center for Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Science, 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | | | | | - Xiaosheng Jiang
- The State of New York Center for Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Science, 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | - Jun Li
- The State of New York Center for Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Science, 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | - Shichen Shen
- The State of New York Center for Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Science, 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | - Chengjian Tu
- The State of New York Center for Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Science, 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| | - Chiu-Bin Hsiao
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine, Allegheny General Hospital , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
| | | | - Jun Qu
- The State of New York Center for Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Science, 701 Ellicott Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Saxena R, Gupta S, Singh K, Mitra K, Tripathi AK, Tripathi RK. Proteomic profiling of SupT1 cells reveal modulation of host proteins by HIV-1 Nef variants. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0122994. [PMID: 25874870 PMCID: PMC4395413 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Nef is an accessory viral protein that promotes HIV-1 replication, facilitating alterations in cellular pathways via multiple protein-protein interactions. The advent of proteomics has expanded the focus on better identification of novel molecular pathways regulating disease progression. In this study, nef was sequenced from randomly selected patients, however, sequence variability identified did not elicited any specific mutation that could have segregated HIV-1 patients in different stages of disease progression. To explore the difference in Nef functionality based on sequence variability we used proteomics approach. Proteomic profiling was done to compare the effect of Nef variants in host cell protein expression. 2DGE in control and Nef transfected SupT1 cells demonstrated several differentially expressed proteins. Fourteen protein spots were detected with more than 1.5 fold difference. Significant down regulation was seen in six unique protein spots in the Nef treated cells. Proteins were identified as Cyclophilin A, EIF5A-1 isoform B, Rho GDI 1 isoform a, VDAC1, OTUB1 and α-enolase isoform 1 (ENO1) through LC-MS/MS. The differential expression of the 6 proteins was analyzed by Real time PCR, Western blotting and Immunofluorescence studies with two Nef variants (RP14 and RP01) in SupT1 cells. There was contrasting difference between the effect of these Nef variants upon the expression of these six proteins. Downregulation of α-enolase (ENO1), VDAC1 and OTUB1 was more significant by Nef RP01 whereas Cyclophilin A and RhoGDI were found to be more downregulated by Nef RP14. This difference in Nef variants upon host protein expression was also studied through a site directed mutant of Nef RP01 (55AAAAAAA61) and the effect was found to be reversed. Deciphering the role of these proteins mediated by Nef variants will open a new avenue of research in understanding Nef mediated pathogenesis. Overall study determines modulation of cellular protein expression in T cells by HIV-1 Nef variants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reshu Saxena
- Toxicology division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, India
| | - Sudipti Gupta
- Toxicology division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, India
| | - Kavita Singh
- Electron Microscopy Lab, Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facility, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, India
| | - Kalyan Mitra
- Electron Microscopy Lab, Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facility, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, India
| | - Anil Kumar Tripathi
- Department of Medicine, King George’s Medical University, Chowk, Lucknow, India
| | - Raj Kamal Tripathi
- Toxicology division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, India
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ray S, Patel SK, Kumar V, Damahe J, Srivastava S. Differential expression of serum/plasma proteins in various infectious diseases: specific or nonspecific signatures. Proteomics Clin Appl 2013; 8:53-72. [PMID: 24293340 PMCID: PMC7168033 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201300074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Apart from direct detection of the infecting organisms or biomarker of the pathogen itself, surrogate host markers are also useful for sensitive and early diagnosis of pathogenic infections. Early detection of pathogenic infections, discrimination among closely related diseases with overlapping clinical manifestations, and monitoring of disease progression can be achieved by analyzing blood biomarkers. Therefore, over the last decade large numbers of proteomics studies have been conducted to identify differentially expressed human serum/plasma proteins in different infectious diseases with the intent of discovering novel potential diagnostic/prognostic biomarkers. However, in-depth review of the literature indicates that many reported biomarkers are altered in the same way in multiple infectious diseases, regardless of the type of infection. This might be a consequence of generic acute phase reactions, while the uniquely modulated candidates in different pathogenic infections could be indicators of some specific responses. In this review article, we will provide a comprehensive analysis of differentially expressed serum/plasma proteins in various infectious diseases and categorize the protein markers associated with generic or specific responses. The challenges associated with the discovery, validation, and translational phases of serum/plasma biomarker establishment are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandipan Ray
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Wadhwani Research Centre for Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Higher NK cell IFN-γ production is associated with delayed HIV disease progression in LTNPs. J Clin Immunol 2013; 33:1376-85. [PMID: 23996459 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-013-9930-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are important effectors of the innate immune system that help control viral infections and tumorigenesis. However, the relationship between NK cell function and HIV disease progression remains poorly defined. In this study, we examined the function of NK cells in Chinese patients who were HIV-infected but treatment-naïve. These individuals include primary HIV-infected patients (PHIs), typical progressors (TPs), and long-term nonprogressors (LTNPs). We observed an increase of CD56(dim) NK cells in PHIs, but the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and CD107a expression in PHIs were not altered compared with normal control subjects (NCs). However, the NK cells from LTNPs exhibited increased activities in IFN-γ production, CD107a expression and granzyme B change after K562 stimulation compared with NCs. Furthermore, the percentage of IFN-γ(+)CD107a(-) NK cells in LTNPs was higher than that in TPs, PHIs and NCs; levels of IFN-γ production in LTNP NK cells exhibited an inverse correlation with viral loads. Similar correlations, however, were not observed in the PHI and TP groups. Taken together, these data demonstrate that enhanced NK cell function may contribute to the control of HIV infection, and increased IFN-γ secretion may be associated with delayed disease progression.
Collapse
|
7
|
Narayanan A, Iordanskiy S, Das R, Van Duyne R, Santos S, Jaworski E, Guendel I, Sampey G, Dalby E, Iglesias-Ussel M, Popratiloff A, Hakami R, Kehn-Hall K, Young M, Subra C, Gilbert C, Bailey C, Romerio F, Kashanchi F. Exosomes derived from HIV-1-infected cells contain trans-activation response element RNA. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:20014-33. [PMID: 23661700 PMCID: PMC3707700 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.438895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2012] [Revised: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are nano-sized vesicles produced by healthy and virus-infected cells. Exosomes derived from infected cells have been shown to contain viral microRNAs (miRNAs). HIV-1 encodes its own miRNAs that regulate viral and host gene expression. The most abundant HIV-1-derived miRNA, first reported by us and later by others using deep sequencing, is the trans-activation response element (TAR) miRNA. In this study, we demonstrate the presence of TAR RNA in exosomes from cell culture supernatants of HIV-1-infected cells and patient sera. TAR miRNA was not in Ago2 complexes outside the exosomes but enclosed within the exosomes. We detected the host miRNA machinery proteins Dicer and Drosha in exosomes from infected cells. We report that transport of TAR RNA from the nucleus into exosomes is a CRM1 (chromosome region maintenance 1)-dependent active process. Prior exposure of naive cells to exosomes from infected cells increased susceptibility of the recipient cells to HIV-1 infection. Exosomal TAR RNA down-regulated apoptosis by lowering Bim and Cdk9 proteins in recipient cells. We found 10(4)-10(6) copies/ml TAR RNA in exosomes derived from infected culture supernatants and 10(3) copies/ml TAR RNA in the serum exosomes of highly active antiretroviral therapy-treated patients or long term nonprogressors. Taken together, our experiments demonstrated that HIV-1-infected cells produced exosomes that are uniquely characterized by their proteomic and RNA profiles that may contribute to disease pathology in AIDS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aarthi Narayanan
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Sergey Iordanskiy
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
- the Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington D. C. 20037
| | - Ravi Das
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Rachel Van Duyne
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
- the Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington D. C. 20037
| | - Steven Santos
- the Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington D. C. 20037
| | - Elizabeth Jaworski
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Irene Guendel
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Gavin Sampey
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Elizabeth Dalby
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Maria Iglesias-Ussel
- the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Anastas Popratiloff
- the Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington D. C. 20037
| | - Ramin Hakami
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Kylene Kehn-Hall
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Mary Young
- the Washington Metropolitan Women's Interagency HIV Study, Division of Infectious Diseases, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20007, and
| | - Caroline Subra
- the Department of Microbiology, Infectiology, and Immunology, Medicine Faculty, Laval University Center Hospitalier Universitaire de Quebec Research Center, City of Quebec, Quebec G1R2J6, Canada
| | - Caroline Gilbert
- the Department of Microbiology, Infectiology, and Immunology, Medicine Faculty, Laval University Center Hospitalier Universitaire de Quebec Research Center, City of Quebec, Quebec G1R2J6, Canada
| | - Charles Bailey
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| | - Fabio Romerio
- the Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Fatah Kashanchi
- From the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia 20110
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Riva A, Vicenzi E, Galli M, Poli G. Strenuous resistance to natural HIV-1 disease progression: viral controllers and long-term nonprogressors. Future Virol 2011. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl.11.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 infection leads to AIDS and death within 8–10 years for most individuals in the absence of antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, a minority of infected individuals show the unusual capacity to spontaneously control disease progression after infection in the absence of any ART. So-called ‘long-term nonprogressors’ are defined by maintenance of peripheral CD4+ T-cell counts >500 cells/µl and good health without ART for >7 years since infection. More recently, ART-naive individuals who spontaneously control their viremia levels at either <50 or <2000 copies of RNA/ml for at least 12 months in the absence of ART have been named ‘elite controllers’ and ‘HIV controllers’, respectively. The overlap between long-term nonprogressors and elite controllers/HIV controllers is partial, and both groups collectively account for <5% of all infected individuals. Unraveling the nature of their relative resistance to HIV-1 disease progression would be of great value for HIV-prevention strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agostino Riva
- Infectious Diseases & Immunopathology Section, Department of Clinical Sciences, L Sacco Hospital, Università di Milano, Italy
| | - Elisa Vicenzi
- Viral Pathogens & Biosafety & AIDS Immunopathogenesis Units, Division of Immunology, Transplantation & Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy; P2/P3 Laboratories, Via Olgettina n 58, 20132, Milano, Italy
| | - Massimo Galli
- Infectious Diseases & Immunopathology Section, Department of Clinical Sciences, L Sacco Hospital, Università di Milano, Italy
| | - Guido Poli
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, School of Medicine, Milano, Italy
| |
Collapse
|