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Wahid B. Clinical Correlation of Blood Cells with Suppression of Cytokine Signaling Gene Expression in Hepatitis C Virus-Infected Patients. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2020; 40:169-171. [PMID: 31985329 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2019.0116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Both innate and adaptive immune responses of host are regulated by fine balance between negative and positive signals to ensure their termination and onset on entry of pathogens. Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) genes inhibit cytokine signaling pathways and regulate innate and adaptive immunity. SOCS genes perform their function by positive and negative regulation of macrophages, development and differentiation of T cells, and activation of dendritic cells. Although the role of SOCS1 and SOCS3 genes in hepatitis C virus (HCV) patients has been well studied, the correlation of SOCS1 gene expression with complete blood count in HCV-positive patients has not been established yet. We observed a weak positive correlation of SOCS1 gene expression with hemoglobin (Hb) and platelet count, whereas leukocytes were negatively correlated with the expression. This study also provides a comparative analysis of complete blood count between healthy subjects and HCV-positive subjects. The findings suggest that Hb and platelet count were significantly lower (P < 0.0001) in HCV patients than in healthy subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braira Wahid
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Science, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
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2
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Rojas-Morales E, Santos-López G, Hernández-Cabañas S, Arcega-Revilla R, Rosas-Murrieta N, Jasso-Miranda C, El-Kassis EG, Reyes-Leyva J, Sedeño-Monge V. Differential Transcription of SOCS5 and SOCS7 in Multiple Sclerosis Patients Treated with Interferon Beta or Glatiramer Acetate. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 21:ijms21010218. [PMID: 31905601 PMCID: PMC6982240 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21010218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The participation of proinflammatory cytokines in the progression of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) has been well documented. Cytokines activate the JAK-STAT pathway, in which the suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) exert a negative feedback. This paper analyzes the levels of SOCS5 and SOCS7 transcripts, quantified by RT-qPCR, in MS patients, and the concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines, IFN-γ, IL17, and IL6, determined by ELISA. Samples of peripheral blood were obtained from MS patients in the relapsing–remitting phase, treated with IFN-β or glatiramer acetate (GA), and from healthy individuals. SOCS7 mRNA was significantly higher in patients treated with GA (1.36 ± 0.23) than in those treated with IFN-β (0.65 ± 0.1). Regarding gender, the level of SOCS5 and SOCS7 transcripts were similar between MS and healthy females; in MS males, the level of SOCS7 transcripts were significantly lower (0.59 ± 0.03) than in healthy males (1.008 ± 0.05). Plasmatic levels of IFN-γ were significantly higher in MS patients (60 pg/mL, range 0–160) than in healthy subjects (0 range, 0–106). The same pattern was observed in MS patients treated with IFN-β (68 pg/mL, range 0–160) compared to patients treated with GA (51 pg/mL, range 0–114), and in MS females (64 pg/mL, range 0–161) compared to healthy females (0, range 0–99). We hypothesize that the increase in SOCS7 transcription in patients treated with GA could partially explain the action mechanism of this drug, while the increase in the concentration of IFN-γ in MS patients could help elucidate the immunopathology of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Rojas-Morales
- Decanato de Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, Puebla 72410, Mexico;
- Decanato de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, Puebla 72410, Mexico;
| | - Gerardo Santos-López
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular y Virología, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Metepec, Puebla 74360, Mexico (J.R.-L.); (C.J.-M.)
| | | | - Raúl Arcega-Revilla
- Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Puebla 72560, Mexico; (S.H.-C.); (R.A.-R.)
| | - Nora Rosas-Murrieta
- Laboratorio de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Centro de Química, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72570, Mexico;
| | - Carolina Jasso-Miranda
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular y Virología, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Metepec, Puebla 74360, Mexico (J.R.-L.); (C.J.-M.)
| | - Elie Girgis El-Kassis
- Decanato de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, Puebla 72410, Mexico;
| | - Julio Reyes-Leyva
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular y Virología, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Metepec, Puebla 74360, Mexico (J.R.-L.); (C.J.-M.)
| | - Virginia Sedeño-Monge
- Decanato de Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, Puebla 72410, Mexico;
- Correspondence: or
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Naz Z, Wahid B, Usman S, Saleem K, Rafique S, Ali A, Idrees M. Expression of SOCS1 and SOCS3 Genes in Interferon-Treated and Direct-Acting Antiviral Drugs-Treated Hepatitis C Patients. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2019; 38:255-260. [PMID: 29920131 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2017.0138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetics of host plays a significant role in susceptibility and pathogenesis of disease. During hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, HCV proteins interfere with interferon (IFN) signaling pathways and upregulate transcription of suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 and 3 genes (SOCS1 and SOCS3), which results in impaired immune response. In this study, we evaluated relative expression of SOCS1 and SOCS3 in untreated HCV patients and patients treated with 2 different treatment strategies that are, (IFN therapy and direct-acting antiviral (DAA) drug regimen. To study gene expression, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated by using Histopaque. Total RNA was extracted from PBMCs by using BIOzol. Nine microgram of total RNA from each sample was used and reverse transcribed into single-stranded complementary DNA (cDNA) by using M-MLV reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen). The synthesized cDNA was diluted to a final concentration of 500 ng/μL. This diluted cDNA was further used for expression analysis of SOCS1and SOCS3 genes using Rotor Gene Q Real-Time PCR Detection System (QIAGEN). Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was amplified as a housekeeping gene. We found that the SOCS1 expression in IFN and DAA-treated patient groups was 5.4 fold and 1.2 fold, respectively, high compared with the healthy controls (IFN versus healthy, P = 0.019 and DAA versus healthy, P = 0.91), whereas the SOCS3 expression in IFN and DAA-treated patient groups was 3.7 fold and 2 fold, respectively, high in comparison with the expression in healthy controls (IFN versus healthy, P = 0.025 and DAA versus healthy, P = 0.03). We also found a significant difference in the relative expression of SOCS1 and SOCS3 in DAAs-treated and IFN/ribavirin (RBV)-treated and untreated individual. We concluded that by targeting HCV proteins with DAAs, SOCS1, and SOCS3 transcription can be more effectively normalized compared to the treatment with IFN/RBV therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zara Naz
- 1 Molecular Virology Laboratory Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), University of the Punjab , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Braira Wahid
- 1 Molecular Virology Laboratory Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), University of the Punjab , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Sana Usman
- 1 Molecular Virology Laboratory Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), University of the Punjab , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Komal Saleem
- 1 Molecular Virology Laboratory Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), University of the Punjab , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Shazia Rafique
- 2 Divison of Molecular Virology, Center of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), University of the Punjab , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Amjad Ali
- 1 Molecular Virology Laboratory Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), University of the Punjab , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Idrees
- 1 Molecular Virology Laboratory Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), University of the Punjab , Lahore, Pakistan .,3 Molecular Biology Department, Hazara University , Mansehra, Pakistan
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Wahid B. Role of SOCS1 Gene in Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Patients: A Mini-Review. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2019; 40:454-459. [PMID: 30916604 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2018.0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a global health problem, with an estimated bioburden of >180 million. Every year about 350,000 people die from HCV-associated liver complications such as cirrhosis and cancer (e.g., hepatocellular carcinoma). Pakistan has the second highest prevalence of HCV. Treatment of this life-threatening disease has been a challenge, but recent developments in direct-acting antivirals have offered hope to many. Although direct-acting antivirals have dramatically improved viral clearance, their exorbitant costs put them out of reach for patients in developing countries. Thus, interferon therapy is still being used in Pakistan. Specifically, interferon-stimulating genes can alter treatment response. For example, interferons induce expression of many antiviral genes through signal transducer and activator of transcription/Janus kinase signaling. Suppressor of cytokine signaling genes play an eminent role in the inhibition of cytokine signaling pathways and regulation of both adaptive and innate immunity. The present review examines expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 in HCV-treated patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braira Wahid
- School of Science, Department of Life Sciences, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
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Wahid B, Rafique S, Saleem K, Ali A, Idrees M. An Increase in Expression of SOCS1 Gene with Increase in Hepatitis C Virus Viral Load. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2018; 38:122-128. [DOI: 10.1089/jir.2017.0129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Braira Wahid
- PCR Section, Genome Centre for Molecular Based Diagnostics and Research Centre, Al-Sudais Plaza Abdalian Cooperative Society, Lahore, Pakistan
- Virology Lab, Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), Thokar Niaz Baig, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Shazia Rafique
- Division of Molecular Virology and Diagnostics Center of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), Thokar Niaz Baig, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Komal Saleem
- PCR Section, Genome Centre for Molecular Based Diagnostics and Research Centre, Al-Sudais Plaza Abdalian Cooperative Society, Lahore, Pakistan
- Virology Lab, Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), Thokar Niaz Baig, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Amjad Ali
- Virology Lab, Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), Thokar Niaz Baig, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Idrees
- PCR Section, Genome Centre for Molecular Based Diagnostics and Research Centre, Al-Sudais Plaza Abdalian Cooperative Society, Lahore, Pakistan
- Virology Lab, Centre for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), Thokar Niaz Baig, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
- Division of Molecular Virology and Diagnostics Center of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), Thokar Niaz Baig, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
- Vice Chancellor Hazara University Mansehra, Pakistan
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Tomer S, Chawla YK, Duseja A, Arora SK. Dominating expression of negative regulatory factors downmodulates major histocompatibility complex Class-II expression on dendritic cells in chronic hepatitis C infection. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22:5173-82. [PMID: 27298560 PMCID: PMC4893464 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i22.5173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To elucidate the molecular mechanisms leading to development of functionally impaired dendritic cells (DCs) in chronic hepatitis C (CHC) patients infected with genotype 3 virus. METHODS This prospective study was conducted on the cohorts of CHC individuals identified as responders or non-responders to antiviral therapy. Myeloid DCs were isolated from the peripheral blood of each subject using CD1c (BDCA1)(+) DC isolation Kit. Monocytes from healthy donor were cultured with DC growth factors such as IL-4 and GM-CSF either in the presence or absence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) viral proteins followed by LPS stimulation. Phenotyping was done by flowcytometry and gene expression profiling was evaluated by real-time PCR. RESULTS Non-responders [sustained virological response (SVR)-ve] to conventional antiviral therapy had significantly higher expression of genes associated with interferon responsive element such as IDO1 and PD-L1 (6-fold) and negative regulators of JAK-STAT pathway such as SOCS (6-fold) as compared to responders (SVR+ve) to antiviral therapy. The down-regulated genes in non-responders included factors involved in antigen processing and presentation mainly belonging to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Class-II family as HLA-DP, HLA-DQ (2-fold) and superoxide dismutase (2-fold). Cells grown in the presence of HCV viral proteins had genes down-regulated for factors involved in innate response, interferon signaling, DC maturation and co-stimulatory signaling to T-cells, while the genes for cytokine signaling and Toll-like receptors (4-fold) were up-regulated as compared to cells grown in absence of viral proteins. CONCLUSION Underexpressed MHC class-II genes and upregulated negative regulators in non-responders indicate diminished capacity to present antigen and may constitute mechanism of functionally defective state of DCs.
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Estrada-Jiménez T, Millán-Pérez Peña L, Flores-Mendoza L, Sedeño-Monge V, Santos-López G, Rosas-Murrieta N, Reyes-Carmona S, Terán-Cabanillas E, Hernández J, Herrera-Camacho I, Vallejo-Ruiz V, Reyes-Leyva J. Upregulation of the Suppressors of Cytokine Signaling 1 and 3 Is Associated with Arrest of Phosphorylated-STAT1 Nuclear Importation and Reduced Innate Response in Denguevirus-Infected Macrophages. Viral Immunol 2015; 29:95-104. [PMID: 26709547 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2014.0136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
To clarify whether the suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) are associated with denguevirus (DENV) evasion of the antiviral response, we analyzed the expression kinetics of SOCS1 and SOCS3 and of the antiviral genes MxA and OAS during DENV infection of U937 macrophages that were or not treated with interferon (IFN)-α. DENV infection produced a viral titer three times higher in untreated than in IFN-α-treated cells (p < 0.001 at 72 h postinfection [p.i.]). Partial inhibition of DENV replication was associated with reduced expression of MxA and OAS antiviral genes as well as higher SOCS1 and SOCS3 expression in DENV-infected cells than in cells treated only with IFN-α. Complete loss of phosphorylated-signal transducer and activator of transcription (p-STAT)2 and reduced nuclear importation of p-STAT1 were observed in DENV-infected cells compared to IFN-α treatment that induced p-STAT1 and p-STAT2. Our data thus suggest that overexpression of SOCS1 and SOCS3 induced by DENV infection leads to impairment of antiviral response through the inhibition of STAT functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Estrada-Jiménez
- 1 Laboratorio de Virología y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, HGZ5, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social , Metepec, Puebla, México .,2 Laboratorio de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Centro de Química, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla , Puebla, México
| | - Lourdes Millán-Pérez Peña
- 2 Laboratorio de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Centro de Química, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla , Puebla, México
| | - Lilian Flores-Mendoza
- 1 Laboratorio de Virología y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, HGZ5, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social , Metepec, Puebla, México
| | - Virginia Sedeño-Monge
- 3 Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla , Puebla, México
| | - Gerardo Santos-López
- 1 Laboratorio de Virología y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, HGZ5, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social , Metepec, Puebla, México
| | - Nora Rosas-Murrieta
- 2 Laboratorio de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Centro de Química, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla , Puebla, México
| | - Sandra Reyes-Carmona
- 2 Laboratorio de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Centro de Química, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla , Puebla, México
| | - Eli Terán-Cabanillas
- 4 Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo A.C. , Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
| | - Jesus Hernández
- 4 Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo A.C. , Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
| | - Irma Herrera-Camacho
- 2 Laboratorio de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Centro de Química, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla , Puebla, México
| | - Verónica Vallejo-Ruiz
- 1 Laboratorio de Virología y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, HGZ5, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social , Metepec, Puebla, México
| | - Julio Reyes-Leyva
- 1 Laboratorio de Virología y Biología Molecular, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, HGZ5, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social , Metepec, Puebla, México
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Sedeño-Monge V, Arcega-Revilla R, Rojas-Morales E, Santos-López G, Perez-García JC, Sosa-Jurado F, Vallejo-Ruiz V, Solis-Morales CL, Aguilar-Rosas S, Reyes-Leyva J. Quantitative analysis of the suppressors of cytokine signaling 1 and 3 in peripheral blood leukocytes of patients with multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2014; 273:117-9. [PMID: 24951315 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by a triad of inflammation, demyelination and gliosis. Because the suppressors of cytokine signaling (Socs) regulate the immune response, we quantified SOCS1 and SOCS3 transcription in peripheral blood leukocytes of patients with MS. SOCS1 transcription decreased significantly in MS patients compared with neurologically healthy persons (0.08±0.02 vs. 1.02±0.23; p=0.0001); while SOCS3 transcription increased in MS patients compared with controls (2.76±0.66 vs. 1.03±0.27; p=0.0008). Our results showed an imbalance of SOCS1 and SOCS3 transcription in MS patients, and a moderated negative correlation between them (Spearman's r=-0.57; p=0.0003).
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Sedeño-Monge
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, Puebla, México.
| | - Raúl Arcega-Revilla
- Servicio de Neurología, UMAE, Hospital de Especialidades, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Puebla, México
| | | | - Gerardo Santos-López
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular y Virología, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Metepec, Puebla, México
| | | | - Francisca Sosa-Jurado
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular y Virología, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Metepec, Puebla, México
| | - Verónica Vallejo-Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular y Virología, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Metepec, Puebla, México
| | | | - Salvador Aguilar-Rosas
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, Puebla, México
| | - Julio Reyes-Leyva
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular y Virología, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Oriente, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Metepec, Puebla, México
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Shao RX, Zhang L, Hong Z, Goto K, Cheng D, Chen WC, Jilg N, Kumthip K, Fusco DN, Peng LF, Chung RT. SOCS1 abrogates IFN's antiviral effect on hepatitis C virus replication. Antiviral Res 2012; 97:101-7. [PMID: 23237992 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2012] [Revised: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 12/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) and suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) have been thought to block type I interferon (IFN) signaling. We have previously reported that SOCS3 suppresses HCV replication in an mTOR-dependent manner. However, the relationship between SOCS1 and HCV replication remains unclear. Here, we found that overexpression of SOCS1 alone did not have an effect on HCV RNA replication. However, suppression of HCV replication by IFN-α was rescued by SOCS1 overexpression. The upregulation of HCV replication by SOCS1 overexpression in the presence of IFN is likely a result of the impairment of IFN signaling by SOCS1 and subsequent induction of ISGs. Knockdown of SOCS1 alone with specific shRNA enhanced the antiviral effect of IFN compared with negative control. Thus, SOCS1 acts as a suppressor of type I IFN function against HCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Run-Xuan Shao
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
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