The role of cytokines and hot flashes in perimenopausal depression

Interleukin-17, C-reactive protein, Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte ratio, Lymphocyte-to-Monocyte ratio, and lipid profiles in healthy menopausal women with or without hot flashes: A cross-sectional study

INTRODUCTION

The reciprocation between systemic inflammatory markers (SIMs), dyslipidemia, and hot flashes (HFs) can play a part in the pathogenesis of endothelial dysfunction through menopause. This study intended to determine the association between some SIMs, lipids, and HFs in healthy menopausal women.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We designed a cross-sectional study in which 160 healthy menopausal women aged 40-60 were enrolled. Concerning their HFs status, they were stratified into two groups by consecutive sampling: without HFs (n = 40) and with HFs (n = 120). In addition to clinical variables and HFs experience, we measured the fasting serum levels of SIMs and lipid profiles (LPs), including Interleukin-17 (IL-17), high- sensitivity C-Reactive Protein (hs-CRP), Total Cholesterol (TC), Triglycerides (TG), Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (LDL-C), and High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (HDL-C) in each group. Then, we calculated TC/HDL-C concerning the related variables and determined Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR), and Lymphocyte-to-Monocyte Ratio (LMR), according to Complete Blood Count (CBC) quantitative parameters in each group. Furthermore, we used logistic regression analysis to assess the association between SIMs, LPs, and HFs.

SETTINGS

We performed this study in a governmental teaching hospital, Guilan/Rasht, Iran, from April to September 2021.

RESULTS

The two groups of menopausal women without and with HFs were not significantly different regarding the median of IL-17, hs-CRP, NLR, LMR, TG, HDL-C, and TC/HDL-C, and the mean of TC and LDL-C. Based on multiple logistic regression, TG levels appeared to be associated with the incidence of HFs (B = 0.004, P = 0.040, Odds Ratio:1.004, 95%CI:1.000-1.009). NLR seemed to have an increasing impact on the HFs severity, according to ordinal logistic regression (B = 0.779, P = 0.005, Odds Ratio = 2.180, 95%CI:1.270-3.744). Furthermore, hs-CRP negatively correlated with TG (r = -0.189, P = 0.039) and TC/HDL-C (r = -0.268, P = 0.003) in menopausal women with HFs.

CONCLUSION

This study indicated an association between SIMs, lipids, and HFs. These connections may suggest HFs as links between SIMs/LPs alterations and their outcomes.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and mood in perimenopausal depression

BACKGROUND

Previous work implicates high pro-inflammatory biomarkers in mood disturbance and low brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in major depression. However, in hormonally-sensitive premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), BDNF levels are higher when mood is worse. Perimenopausal depression has not been studied to date. We evaluated whether BDNF and inflammatory cytokines predict mood symptoms across the menstrual cycle in hormonally-sensitive perimenopausal depression symptoms.

METHODS

Data from 49 time points derived from mid-to-late follicular phase [M/L-FP] and peri‑menstrual assessments of 14 perimenopausal women ages 38-52 with ovulatory menstrual cycles 24-35 days long across 1-2 cycles for mood symptoms, BDNF levels, cytokines, gonadal steroids. Depression was assessed with Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI); irritability with Kellner Symptom Questionnaire Anger-Hostility subscale (SQ); overall psychological distress with Profile of Mood States (POMS). Mixed models were run on dependent measures of MADRS (primary endpoint) and other mood outcomes (BDI, POMS, SQ) with independent variables of interest (each biomarker, cycle phase), controlling for cycle number and participant.

RESULTS

After FDR adjustment, BDNF levels showed consistent significant positive relationships to MADRS (β=0.00053; p = 0.0028), POMS (β=0.00153; p = 0.0394), SQ (β=0.00053; p = 0.0067), and BDI (β=0.00039; p = 0.0231). Cycle phase did not affect this relationship. No other biomarker consistently predicted affective symptom severity.

LIMITATIONS

Small sample size and large number of comparisons.

CONCLUSION

In women with perimenopausal depression symptoms, BDNF is elevated in association with more severe mood symptomatology, resembling the pattern in hormonally-sensitive PMDD and suggesting a hormonally-sensitive mood disorder biomarker profile distinct from that of major depression.

A tale of two systems: Lessons learned from female mid-life aging with implications for Alzheimer's prevention & treatment

Neurological aging is frequently viewed as a linear process of decline, whereas in reality, it is a dynamic non-linear process. The dynamic nature of neurological aging is exemplified during midlife in the female brain. To investigate fundamental mechanisms of midlife aging that underlie risk for development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in late life, we investigated the brain at greatest risk for the disease, the aging female brain. Outcomes of our research indicate that mid-life aging in the female is characterized by the emergence of three phases: early chronological (pre-menopause), endocrinological (peri-menopause) and late chronological (post-menopause) aging. The endocrinological aging program is sandwiched between early and late chronological aging. Throughout the three stages of midlife aging, two systems of biology, metabolic and immune, are tightly integrated through a network of signaling cascades. The network of signaling between these two systems of biology underlie an orchestrated sequence of adaptative starvation responses that shift the brain from near exclusive dependence on a single fuel, glucose, to utilization of an auxiliary fuel derived from lipids, ketone bodies. The dismantling of the estrogen control of glucose metabolism during mid-life aging is a critical contributor to the shift in fuel systems and emergence of dynamic neuroimmune phenotype. The shift in fuel reliance, puts the largest reservoir of local fatty acids, white matter, at risk for catabolism as a source of lipids to generate ketone bodies through astrocytic beta oxidation. APOE4 genotype accelerates the tipping point for emergence of the bioenergetic crisis. While outcomes derived from research conducted in the female brain are not directly translatable to the male brain, the questions addressed in a female centric program of research are directly applicable to investigation of the male brain. Like females, males with AD exhibit deficits in the bioenergetic system of the brain, activation of the immune system and hallmark Alzheimer's pathologies. The drivers and trajectory of mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration in the male brain will undoubtedly share common aspects with the female in addition to factors unique to the male. Preclinical and clinical evidence indicate that midlife endocrine aging can also be a transitional bridge to autoimmune disorders. Collectively, the data indicate that endocrinological aging is a critical period "tipping point" in midlife which can initiate emergence of the prodromal stage of late-onset-Alzheimer's disease. Interventions that target both immune and metabolic shifts that occur during midlife aging have the potential to alter the trajectory of Alzheimer's risk in late life. Further, to achieve precision medicine for AD, chromosomal sex is a critical variable to consider along with APOE genotype, other genetic risk factors and stage of disease.

Perimenopause and First-Onset Mood Disorders: A Closer Look

Perimenopause is often a time of social, emotional, and physical change. Various factors contribute to the development of mood disorders during this time. There is a known association among women with previous history of major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder and relapse during the menopausal transition. First-onset mood disorders during this time have been less studied. A literature review in PsycInfo Ovid of records pertaining to first-onset mood disorders during perimenopause showed that this multifactorial process involves hormonal fluctuations, with estrogen being a key player. In addition, vasomotor symptoms, previous negative life events, and socioeconomic status were found to contribute to first-onset mood disorders during perimenopause. Treatment options include established medication regimens for psychiatric conditions; however, hormone therapy also has proven beneficial for this patient population. Further research, particularly on bipolar disorder, is needed to develop a clear association between perimenopause and first-onset mood disorders.

Leptin enhances adult neurogenesis and reduces pathological features in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common dementia worldwide and is characterized by the presence of senile plaques by amyloid-beta (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated Tau protein. These changes lead to progressive neuronal degeneration and dysfunction, resulting in severe brain atrophy and cognitive deficits. With the discovery that neurogenesis persists in the adult mammalian brain, including brain regions affected by AD, studies of the use of neural stem cells (NSCs) for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases to repair or prevent neuronal cell loss have increased. Here we demonstrate that leptin administration increases the neurogenic process in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus as well as in the subventricular zone of lateral ventricles of adult and aged mice. Chronic treatment with leptin increased NSCs proliferation with significant effects on proliferation and differentiation of newborn cells. The expression of the long form of the leptin receptor, LepRb, was detected in the neurogenic niches by reverse qPCR and immunohistochemistry. Moreover, leptin modulated astrogliosis, microglial cell number and the formation of senile plaques. Additionally, leptin led to attenuation of Aβ-induced neurodegeneration and superoxide anion production as revealed by Fluoro-Jade B and dihydroethidium staining. Our study contributes to the understanding of the effects of leptin in the brain that may lead to the development of new therapies to treat Alzheimer's disease.

Depression during perimenopause: the role of the obstetrician-gynecologist

Depression in women is more common during perimenopause (the transition to menopause) than at other times in the life cycle. Symptoms of depression may be different in perimenopausal women compared to younger or older women, and are often dismissed as part of normal menopause. This is an expert narrative review. There are several evidence-based screening modalities which can be integrated into routine women's health visits, and can facilitate distinguishing between depression and normal perimenopausal symptoms. There is emerging evidence regarding the effect of hormonal changes on the development of perimenopausal depression and its optimal treatment, though critical research gaps remain. Obstetrician-gynecologists and other primary care providers play a vital role in the detection and management of depression in women. Providers caring for women during perimenopause have a unique opportunity to diagnose depression in their patients and identify appropriate treatment options.

The bidirectional relationship between vasomotor symptoms and depression across the menopausal transition: a systematic review of longitudinal studies

OBJECTIVE

To explore the nature of the bidirectional relationship between vasomotor symptoms (VMS) and depression, and to determine whether hot flashes and night sweats differentially affect the association between VMS and depression through their effect on sleep disruption.

METHODS

Multiple databases were searched from 1961 until July 31, 2016, and a manual search of reference lists of identified articles was conducted. Sixteen articles that involved 10,008 participants were identified and analyzed.

RESULTS

The methods of analyses and measurement of VMS and depression varied across the studies. Two studies explored the bidirectional association, but only one was significant in both directions (odds ratio [OR] depression to VMS 3.06, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.43-6.58; OR VMS to depression 8.88, 95% CI 2.57-30.68). In both cases, the association between VMS leading to depressive symptoms was stronger than the opposite. Eleven studies examined VMS leading to depression, but only five showed a significant effect (OR 1.57-1.81, P ≤ 0.02). Treating VMS and depressive symptoms as continuous variables (n = 3) diminished the relationship. Three studies showed a significant association of depression leading to VMS (OR 1.62-1.94, P ≤ 0.01). We found little evidence for a specific effect of night sweats on the association between VMS and depressive symptoms. The effect might not be related to sleep disruption.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a bidirectional association between VMS and depressive symptoms. The menopausal transition appears to increase the risk of recurrent episodes of depression that might not be explained only by VMS. Further investigation is needed to explain the differential effect of night sweats and hot flashes on depression.

Improving menopausal symptoms through promoting physical activity: a pilot Web-based intervention study among Asian Americans

OBJECTIVE

Based on previous studies, a Web-based physical activity promotion program with educational modules on menopausal symptoms and physical activity has been developed for Asian American midlife women to reduce their menopausal symptoms through increasing their physical activity. The purpose of this pilot randomized intervention study was to determine the efficacy of the Web-based program in improving menopausal symptom experience of Asian American midlife women.

METHODS

This was a randomized repeated measures pretest/posttest (pretest, post 1 month, and post 3 months) control group study among 29 Asian American midlife women. Multiple instruments were used, including the Midlife Women's Symptom Index and the Kaiser Physical Activity Survey. The data were analyzed using a mixed-model growth curve analysis.

RESULTS

Over time, total severity scores decreased for the control group (-0.53, P < 0.10), whereas they did not exhibit a meaningful change for the intervention group. Both study groups experienced improvement in active living habits over time, but such an improvement was greater for the intervention group (β = 0.29, P < 0.001) than for the control group (β = 0.08, P < 0.10). The time × group interactions for total severity scores were not statistically significant anymore after controlling for physical activity (-0.34 for the control group, P = 0.10).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings supported the feasibility of a 3-month Web-based intervention for menopausal symptom management among Asian American midlife women and the preliminary efficacy of the program in increasing their physical activity.

Circulating interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor-α are associated with hot flashes in healthy postmenopausal women

Introduction

Hot flashes have been postulated to be linked to systemic inflammation. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between hot flashes, pro-inflammatory factors, and leukocytes in healthy, non-obese postmenopausal women.

Participants and design

In this cross-sectional study, a total of 202 women aged 45–60 years were stratified into one of four groups according to their hot-flash status: never experienced hot flashes (Group N), mild hot flashes (Group m), moderate hot flashes (Group M), and severe hot flashes (Group S). Variables measured in this study included clinical parameters, hot flash experience, leukocytes, and fasting plasma levels of nine circulating cytokines/chemokines measured by using multiplex assays. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to evaluate the associations of hot flashes with these pro-inflammatory factors.

Settings

The study was performed in a hospital medical center.

Results

The mean values of leukocyte number were not different between these four groups. The hot flash status had a positive tendency toward increased levels of circulating IL-6 (P-trend = 0.049), IL-8 (P-trend < 0.001), TNF-α (P-trend = 0.008), and MIP1β (P-trend = 0.04). Multivariate linear regression analysis revealed that hot-flash severity was significantly associated with IL-8 (P-trend < 0.001) and TNFα (P-trend = 0.007) among these nine cytokines/chemokines after adjustment for age, menopausal duration, BMI and FSH. Multivariate analysis further revealed that severe hot flashes were strongly associated with a higher IL-8 (% difference, 37.19%; 95% confidence interval, 14.98,63.69; P < 0.001) and TNFα (51.27%; 6.64,114.57; P < 0.05).

Conclusion

The present study provides evidence that hot flashes are associated with circulating IL-8 and TNF-α in healthy postmenopausal women. It suggests that hot flashes might be related to low-grade systemic inflammation.

A randomized controlled study examining the effect of exercise on inflammatory cytokine levels in post-menopausal women

BACKGROUND

Elevated plasma levels of inflammatory cytokine are associated with body mass index, percent body fat and increased morbidity. Evidence suggests that higher levels of physical activity result in beneficial anti-inflammatory effects compared to a more sedentary lifestyle. Further, reproductive hormones are associated with inflammaotry cytokines. This study examined the effect of a 16-week low-moderate intensity exercise (EX) programme on reproductive hormones and inflammatory cytokines.

METHODS

Twenty-eight healthy, sedentary post-menopausal women were randomly assigned to EX (n = 14) or control (Con, n = 14) groups. The EX group completed low-moderate intensity treadmill training 25-30 min/day, up to 55% of HRmax, 3-4 days/week, for 16-weeks. Con maintained current physical activity level. Baseline and week-16 serum samples evaluated interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, C-reactive protein, estradiol, luteinizing hormone and follicular stimulating hormone.

RESULTS

Post-intervention, the EX group showed a significant decrease in interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, estradiol, follicular stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone levels compared to baseline values. No significant changes were observed in Con. Significant correlations were observed between IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and reproductive hormones, both before and after the exercise intervention.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that a low-moderate intensity EX programme decreases cytokines in relation to reproductive hormones in post-menopausal women. These findings support the role of EX in reducing inflammatory markers and improved reproductive hormones in post-menopausal women.

Lack of association of acute phase response proteins with hormone levels and antidepressant medication in perimenopausal depression

BACKGROUND

Major depression is associated with higher plasma levels of positive acute-phase proteins, as well as with lower plasma levels of negative acute-phase proteins. The aim of this study is to examine the levels of acute-phase response proteins and whether these levels are influenced by reproductive hormones and antidepressant medication in the perimenopausal depression.

METHODS

Sixty-five women (age range: 40-58 years old) participated in this study. All women were in the perimenopausal phase. The diagnosis of depression was made through a psychiatric interview and with the aid of Hamilton Depression Rating Scale 17 (HAM-D 17). The acute-phase response proteins, such as haptoglobin (HP), transferrine (TRf), α1-antitrypsin, complement protein 3 (C3), complement protein 4 (C4) and C-reactive protein (CRP) and the reproductive hormones, for example follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and estradiol (E2), were analyzed using standard laboratory methods. Pearson's correlations were applied to evaluate the relationship between acute-phase proteins and hormones.

RESULTS

Perimenopausal women were divided into three groups. The first group consisted of normal controls, the second one involved depressed perimenopausal women, who were taking selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and the third one included depressed women that were not treated with SSRIs. Depressed women in perimenopause, when being compared to non-depressed women, did not differ as to serum levels of acute-phase proteins. There was a positive correlation between HP and E2 in depressed perimenopausal women, who were not taking SSRIs.

CONCLUSIONS

The lack of association between acute-phase proteins and depressive mood mentioned in this study does not support previous findings in patients with major depression. This negative finding in perimenopausal depression indicates either the absence or a more complex nature of the interactions between acute-phase proteins, low-grade inflammation and depression. The hormonal profile of women is a part of this complexity, because it seems that in perimenopause the hormonal changes are accompanied by changes of acute-phase response proteins. Particularly, in perimenopausal depression, there is an interaction between HP and E2. Therefore, it seems that perimenopause is a period of a woman's life during which hormonal, immune and metabolic changes occur and interact with each other making women vulnerable to depression.