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Majdi A, Asamoah B, Mc Laughlin M. Understanding Neuromodulation Pathways in tDCS: Brain Stem Recordings in Rat During Trigeminal Nerve Direct Current Stimulation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.14.557723. [PMID: 37745349 PMCID: PMC10515934 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.14.557723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Background Recent evidence suggests that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) indirectly influences brain activity through cranial nerve pathways, particularly the trigeminal nerve. However, the electrophysiological effects of direct current (DC) stimulation on the trigeminal nerve (DC-TNS) and its impact on trigeminal nuclei remain unknown. These nuclei exert control over brainstem centers regulating neurotransmitter release, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, potentially affecting global brain activity. Objectives To investigate how DC-TNS impacts neuronal activity in the principal sensory nucleus (NVsnpr) and the mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal nerve (MeV). Methods Twenty male Sprague Dawley rats (n=10 each nucleus) were anesthetized with urethane. DC stimulation, ranging from 0.5 to 3 mA, targeted the trigeminal nerve's marginal branch. Simultaneously, single-unit electrophysiological recordings were obtained using a 32-channel silicon probe, comprising three one-minute intervals: pre-stimulation, DC stimulation, and post-stimulation. Xylocaine was administered to block the trigeminal nerve as a control. Results DC-TNS significantly increased neuronal spiking activity in both NVsnpr and MeV, returning to baseline during the post-stimulation phase. When the trigeminal nerve was blocked with xylocaine, the robust 3 mA trigeminal nerve DC stimulation failed to induce increased spiking activity in the trigeminal nuclei. Conclusion Our results offer initial empirical support for trigeminal nuclei activity modulation via DC-TNS. This discovery supports the hypothesis that cranial nerve pathways may play a pivotal role in mediating tDCS effects, setting the stage for further exploration into the complex interplay between peripheral nerves and neural modulation techniques. Highlights Direct current stimulation of the trigeminal nerve (DC-TNS) modulates neural activity in rat NVsnpr and MeV.Xylocaine administration reversibly blocks the DC-TNS effect on neural responses.Trigeminal nerve stimulation should be considered a possible mechanism of action of tDCS.
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Staiger JF, Petersen CCH. Neuronal Circuits in Barrel Cortex for Whisker Sensory Perception. Physiol Rev 2020; 101:353-415. [PMID: 32816652 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00019.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The array of whiskers on the snout provides rodents with tactile sensory information relating to the size, shape and texture of objects in their immediate environment. Rodents can use their whiskers to detect stimuli, distinguish textures, locate objects and navigate. Important aspects of whisker sensation are thought to result from neuronal computations in the whisker somatosensory cortex (wS1). Each whisker is individually represented in the somatotopic map of wS1 by an anatomical unit named a 'barrel' (hence also called barrel cortex). This allows precise investigation of sensory processing in the context of a well-defined map. Here, we first review the signaling pathways from the whiskers to wS1, and then discuss current understanding of the various types of excitatory and inhibitory neurons present within wS1. Different classes of cells can be defined according to anatomical, electrophysiological and molecular features. The synaptic connectivity of neurons within local wS1 microcircuits, as well as their long-range interactions and the impact of neuromodulators, are beginning to be understood. Recent technological progress has allowed cell-type-specific connectivity to be related to cell-type-specific activity during whisker-related behaviors. An important goal for future research is to obtain a causal and mechanistic understanding of how selected aspects of tactile sensory information are processed by specific types of neurons in the synaptically connected neuronal networks of wS1 and signaled to downstream brain areas, thus contributing to sensory-guided decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochen F Staiger
- University Medical Center Göttingen, Institute for Neuroanatomy, Göttingen, Germany; and Laboratory of Sensory Processing, Faculty of Life Sciences, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Carl C H Petersen
- University Medical Center Göttingen, Institute for Neuroanatomy, Göttingen, Germany; and Laboratory of Sensory Processing, Faculty of Life Sciences, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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Severson KS, Xu D, Yang H, O'Connor DH. Coding of whisker motion across the mouse face. eLife 2019; 8:41535. [PMID: 30816844 PMCID: PMC6395061 DOI: 10.7554/elife.41535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Haptic perception synthesizes touch with proprioception, the sense of body position. Humans and mice alike experience rich active touch of the face. Because most facial muscles lack proprioceptor endings, the sensory basis of facial proprioception remains unsolved. Facial proprioception may instead rely on mechanoreceptors that encode both touch and self-motion. In rodents, whisker mechanoreceptors provide a signal that informs the brain about whisker position. Whisking involves coordinated orofacial movements, so mechanoreceptors innervating facial regions other than whiskers could also provide information about whisking. To define all sources of sensory information about whisking available to the brain, we recorded spikes from mechanoreceptors innervating diverse parts of the face. Whisker motion was encoded best by whisker mechanoreceptors, but also by those innervating whisker pad hairy skin and supraorbital vibrissae. Redundant self-motion responses may provide the brain with a stable proprioceptive signal despite mechanical perturbations during active touch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle S Severson
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Brain Science Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Duo Xu
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Brain Science Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Hongdian Yang
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Brain Science Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Daniel H O'Connor
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Brain Science Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
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Caria MA, Biagi F, Mameli O. The mesencephalic-hypoglossal nuclei loop as a possible central pattern generator for rhythmical whisking in rats. Exp Brain Res 2018; 236:2899-2911. [PMID: 30073387 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5347-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
It has been previously demonstrated that the Me5 nucleus is involved in the genesis of reflex activities at whisker pad level. Specific Me5 neurons, which provide sensory innervation of the macrovibrissae, are monosynaptically connected with small hypoglossal neurons innervating the extrinsic muscles that control macrovibrissal movements. Artificial whisking, induced by the electrical stimulation of the peripheral stump of the facial nerve and the electrical stimulation of the XII nucleus or the infraorbital nerve, induced evoked responses in the whisker pad extrinsic motor units, along with a significant increase in the electromyographic activity of the extrinsic pad muscles (Mameli et al. in Acta Oto-Laryngol 126:1334-1338, 2006; in Pfűgers Arch Eur J Physiol 456:1189-1198, 2008; in Brain Res 1283:34-40, 2009; in Exp Brain Res 234:753-761, 2016). In anaesthetized rats, we evaluated the possible involvement of this Me5-XII loop in the genesis of rhythmical whisking. The anatomical findings showed that in addition to the ipsilateral, even the contralateral Me5 nucleus could be retrogradely labeled by the Dil tracer injected into the whisker pad of one side, they, furthermore, showed labeled axons extending across the midline between the two nuclei. The electrophysiological findings agreed with the neuroanatomical results, since the mechanical or artificially induced deflection of the whiskers of one side, evoked in the Me5 contralateral nucleus different patterns of responses. The hypothesis that the Me5-XII loops, along with their cross-linked relationship, could act as a "central generator" responsible for the stereotyped symmetrical pattern of macrovibrissal movements such as rhythmical whisking has been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcello Alessandro Caria
- Human Physiology Division, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Francesca Biagi
- Anatomy of Domestic Animals Division, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Ombretta Mameli
- Human Physiology Division, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
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Mameli O, Caria MA, Biagi F, Zedda M, Farina V. Neurons within the trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus encode for the kinematic parameters of the whisker pad macrovibrissae. Physiol Rep 2018; 5:e13206. [PMID: 28546281 PMCID: PMC5449554 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.13206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been recently shown in rats that spontaneous movements of whisker pad macrovibrissae elicited evoked responses in the trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus (Me5). In the present study, electrophysiological and neuroanatomical experiments were performed in anesthetized rats to evaluate whether, besides the whisker displacement per se, the Me5 neurons are also involved in encoding the kinematic properties of macrovibrissae movements, and also whether, as reported for the trigeminal ganglion, even within the Me5 nucleus exists a neuroanatomical representation of the whisker pad macrovibrissae. Extracellular electrical activity of single Me5 neurons was recorded before, during, and after mechanical deflection of the ipsilateral whisker pad macrovibrissae in different directions, and with different velocities and amplitudes. In several groups of animals, single or multiple injections of the tracer Dil were performed into the whisker pad of one side, in close proximity to the vibrissae follicles, in order to label the peripheral terminals of the Me5 neurons innervating the macrovibrissae (whisking‐neurons), and therefore, the respective perikaria within the nucleus. Results showed that: (1) the whisker pad macrovibrissae were represented in the medial‐caudal part of the Me5 nucleus by a single cluster of cells whose number seemed to match that of the macrovibrissae; (2) macrovibrissae mechanical deflection elicited significant responses in the Me5 whisking‐neurons, which were related to the direction, amplitude, and frequency of the applied deflection. The specific functional role of Me5 neurons involved in encoding proprioceptive information arising from the macrovibrissae movements is discussed within the framework of the whole trigeminal nuclei activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ombretta Mameli
- Department Clinical and Experimental Medicine: Human Physiology Division, Sassari, Italy
| | - Marcello A Caria
- Department Clinical and Experimental Medicine: Human Physiology Division, Sassari, Italy
| | - Francesca Biagi
- Department Veterinary Medicine: Anatomy of Domestic Animals Division, Sassari, Italy
| | - Marco Zedda
- Department Veterinary Medicine: Anatomy of Domestic Animals Division, Sassari, Italy
| | - Vittorio Farina
- Department Veterinary Medicine: Anatomy of Domestic Animals Division, Sassari, Italy
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Whisking mechanics and active sensing. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2016; 40:178-188. [PMID: 27632212 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We describe recent advances in quantifying the three-dimensional (3D) geometry and mechanics of whisking. Careful delineation of relevant 3D reference frames reveals important geometric and mechanical distinctions between the localization problem ('where' is an object) and the feature extraction problem ('what' is an object). Head-centered and resting-whisker reference frames lend themselves to quantifying temporal and kinematic cues used for object localization. The whisking-centered reference frame lends itself to quantifying the contact mechanics likely associated with feature extraction. We offer the 'windowed sampling' hypothesis for active sensing: that rats can estimate an object's spatial features by integrating mechanical information across whiskers during brief (25-60ms) windows of 'haptic enclosure' with the whiskers, a motion that resembles a hand grasp.
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Yang AET, Hartmann MJZ. Whisking Kinematics Enables Object Localization in Head-Centered Coordinates Based on Tactile Information from a Single Vibrissa. Front Behav Neurosci 2016; 10:145. [PMID: 27486390 PMCID: PMC4949211 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
During active tactile exploration with their whiskers (vibrissae), rodents can rapidly orient to an object even though there are very few proprioceptors in the whisker muscles. Thus a long-standing question in the study of the vibrissal system is how the rat can localize an object in head-centered coordinates without muscle-based proprioception. We used a three-dimensional model of whisker bending to simulate whisking motions against a peg to investigate the possibility that the 3D mechanics of contact from a single whisker are sufficient for localization in head-centered coordinates. Results show that for nearly all whiskers in the array, purely tactile signals at the whisker base - as would be measured by mechanoreceptors, in whisker-centered coordinates - could be used to determine the location of a vertical peg in head-centered coordinates. Both the "roll" and the "elevation" components of whisking kinematics contribute to the uniqueness and resolution of the localization. These results offer an explanation for a behavioral study showing that rats can more accurately determine the horizontal angle of an object if one column, rather than one row, of whiskers is spared.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E T Yang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston IL, USA
| | - Mitra J Z Hartmann
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, EvanstonIL, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, EvanstonIL, USA
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Evidence for a trigeminal mesencephalic-hypoglossal nuclei loop involved in controlling vibrissae movements in the rat. Exp Brain Res 2015; 234:753-61. [PMID: 26645304 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-015-4503-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies performed in rats showed that the whisker-pad motor innervation involves not only the facial nerve, but also some hypoglossal neurons whose axons travel within the trigeminal infraorbital nerve (ION) and target the extrinsic muscles surrounding the whisker-pad macrovibrissae. Furthermore, the electrical stimulation of the ION induced an increase in the EMG activity of these muscles, while the hypoglossal nucleus stimulation elicited evoked potentials and single motor unit responses. However, the existence of a neural network able to involve the XIIth nucleus in macrovibrissae whisking control was totally unknown until now. Since other recent experiments demonstrated that: (1) the mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus (Me5) neurons respond to both spontaneous and artificial movements of macrovibrissae, and (2) the Me5 peripheral terminals provide a monosynaptic sensory innervation to the macrovibrissae, the present study was aimed at analyzing a possible role of the Me5 nucleus as a relay station in the sensory-motor loop that involves the XIIth nucleus neurons in rhythmic whisking control. Two tracers were used in the same animal: Fluoro Gold, which was injected into the whisker pad to retrogradely label the hypoglossal whisker-pad projection neurons, and Dil, which was instead injected into the Me5 to label its projections to these hypoglossal neurons. Results demonstrated that terminals of the Me5 neurons monosynaptically target the hypoglossal whisker-pad projection neurons. The functional role of this sensory-motor connection is discussed, with particular regard to a hypothesized proprioceptive reflex in whisker-pad extrinsic muscles that can be elicited by the activation of the Me5 macrovibrissae receptors.
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Mameli O, Stanzani S, Russo A, Pellitteri R, Manca P, De Riu PL, Caria MA. Involvement of trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus in kinetic encoding of whisker movements. Brain Res Bull 2014; 102:37-45. [PMID: 24518654 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2014.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Revised: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 01/31/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
In previous experiments performed on anaesthetised rats, we demonstrated that whisking neurons responsive to spontaneous movement of the macrovibrissae are located within the trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus (Me5) and that retrograde tracers injected into the mystacial pad of the rat muzzle extensively labelled a number of Me5 neurons. In order to evaluate the electrophysiological characteristics of the Me5-whisker pad neural connection, the present study analysed the Me5 neurons responses to artificial whisking induced by electrical stimulation of the peripheral stump of the facial nerve. Furthermore, an anterograde tracer was injected into the Me5 to identify and localise the peripheral terminals of these neurons in the mystacial structures. The electrophysiological data demonstrated that artificial whisking induced Me5 evoked potentials as well as single and multiunit Me5 neurons responses consistent with a direct connection. Furthermore, the neuroanatomical findings showed that the peripheral terminals of the Me5 stained neurons established direct connections with the upper part of the macrovibrissae, at the conical body level, with fibres spiralling around the circumference of the vibrissae shaft. As for the functional role of this sensory innervation, we speculated that the Me5 neurons are possibly involved in encoding and relaying proprioceptive information related to vibrissae movements to other CNS structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ombretta Mameli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Human Physiology, School of Medicine, Sassari University, viale San Pietro 8, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Stefania Stanzani
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Physiology Division, Catania University, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Antonella Russo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Physiology Division, Catania University, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Rosalia Pellitteri
- Institute of Neurological Sciences, National Research Council, Section of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Paolo Manca
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Human Physiology, School of Medicine, Sassari University, viale San Pietro 8, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Pier Luigi De Riu
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Human Physiology, School of Medicine, Sassari University, viale San Pietro 8, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Marcello Alessandro Caria
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Human Physiology, School of Medicine, Sassari University, viale San Pietro 8, 07100 Sassari, Italy
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Evans MH, Fox CW, Lepora NF, Pearson MJ, Sullivan JC, Prescott TJ. The effect of whisker movement on radial distance estimation: a case study in comparative robotics. Front Neurorobot 2013; 6:12. [PMID: 23293601 PMCID: PMC3533814 DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2012.00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Whisker movement has been shown to be under active control in certain specialist animals such as rats and mice. Though this whisker movement is well characterized, the role and effect of this movement on subsequent sensing is poorly understood. One method for investigating this phenomena is to generate artificial whisker deflections with robotic hardware under different movement conditions. A limitation of this approach is that assumptions must be made in the design of any artificial whisker actuators, which will impose certain restrictions on the whisker-object interaction. In this paper we present three robotic whisker platforms, each with different mechanical whisker properties and actuation mechanisms. A feature-based classifier is used to simultaneously discriminate radial distance to contact and contact speed for the first time. We show that whisker-object contact speed predictably affects deflection magnitudes, invariant of whisker material or whisker movement trajectory. We propose that rodent whisker control allows the animal to improve sensing accuracy by regulating contact speed induced touch-to-touch variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathew H Evans
- Department of Psychology, Sheffield Centre for Robotics, University of Sheffield Sheffield, UK
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Solomon JH, Hartmann MJZ. Radial distance determination in the rat vibrissal system and the effects of Weber's law. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2012; 366:3049-57. [PMID: 21969686 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2011.0166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Rats rhythmically tap and brush their vibrissae (whiskers) against objects to tactually explore the environment. To extract a complex feature such as the contour of an object, the rat must at least implicitly estimate radial object distance, that is, the distance from the base of the vibrissa to the point of object contact. Radial object distance cannot be directly measured, however, because there are no mechanoreceptors along the vibrissa. Instead, the mechanical signals generated by the vibrissa's interaction with the environment must be transmitted to mechanoreceptors near the vibrissa base. The first part of this paper surveys the different mechanical methods by which the rat could determine radial object distance. Two novel methods are highlighted: one based on measurement of bending moment and axial force at the vibrissa base, and a second based on measurement of how far the vibrissa rotates beyond initial contact. The second part of the paper discusses the application of Weber's law to two methods for radial distance determination. In both cases, Weber's law predicts that the rat will have greatest sensing resolution close to the vibrissa tip. These predictions could be tested with behavioural experiments that measure the perceptual acuity of the rat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph H Solomon
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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Bosman LWJ, Houweling AR, Owens CB, Tanke N, Shevchouk OT, Rahmati N, Teunissen WHT, Ju C, Gong W, Koekkoek SKE, De Zeeuw CI. Anatomical pathways involved in generating and sensing rhythmic whisker movements. Front Integr Neurosci 2011; 5:53. [PMID: 22065951 PMCID: PMC3207327 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2011.00053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The rodent whisker system is widely used as a model system for investigating sensorimotor integration, neural mechanisms of complex cognitive tasks, neural development, and robotics. The whisker pathways to the barrel cortex have received considerable attention. However, many subcortical structures are paramount to the whisker system. They contribute to important processes, like filtering out salient features, integration with other senses, and adaptation of the whisker system to the general behavioral state of the animal. We present here an overview of the brain regions and their connections involved in the whisker system. We do not only describe the anatomy and functional roles of the cerebral cortex, but also those of subcortical structures like the striatum, superior colliculus, cerebellum, pontomedullary reticular formation, zona incerta, and anterior pretectal nucleus as well as those of level setting systems like the cholinergic, histaminergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic pathways. We conclude by discussing how these brain regions may affect each other and how they together may control the precise timing of whisker movements and coordinate whisker perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurens W. J. Bosman
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MCRotterdam, Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Academy of Arts and SciencesAmsterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Cullen B. Owens
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MCRotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Nouk Tanke
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MCRotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Negah Rahmati
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MCRotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Chiheng Ju
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MCRotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Wei Gong
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MCRotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Chris I. De Zeeuw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MCRotterdam, Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Academy of Arts and SciencesAmsterdam, Netherlands
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