An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Babungo, Northwest Region, Cameroon

Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for various diseases in the remote areas of Changa Manga Forest, Pakistan

Abstract This study aims at reporting the indigenous knowledge of the medicinal flora from the inhabitants of surroundings of the World’s largest artificial planted forest “Changa Manga”, Pakistan. Data were collected by direct interviews and group meetings from 81 inhabitants including 32 local healers having information regarding the use of indigenous medicinal plants over a period of one year. Different statistical tools were applied to analyze the data including Frequency citation (FC), Relative frequency citation (RFC), Use Value, Factor of informants consensus and fidelity level. This study reported 73 plant species belonging to 37 plant families and 46 genera. The majority of plant species belong to compositae family. The most commonly used medicinal plants were P. hysterophorus L., P. dactylifera L., S. indicum L, P. harmala L., P. emblica L., and A. indica A.Juss. The greatest number of species was used to cure gastrointestinal disorders. The highest fidelity level (68.18%) was of E. helioscopia to cure gastrointestinal disorders. Maximum fresh uses (17) were reported by C. dactylon (L.) Pars. While the highest number of species reporting fresh uses in similar number was 13. In this study, five novel plants are being reported for the first time in Pakistan for their ethnomedicinal worth. Our data reflect unique usage of the medicinal plants in the study area. The statistical tools used in the study proved useful in pointing the most important and disease category specific plants. High use value plant and the new reported medicinal plants might prove an important source of the isolation of pharmacologically active compounds.

GC-MS chemical profiling, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities of ethyl acetate fraction of Spilanthes filicaulis (Schumach. and Thonn.) C.D. Adams leaves: experimental and computational studies

Introduction: This study aimed to investigate the chemical profile of GC-MS, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities of the ethyl acetate fraction of Spilanthes filicaulis leaves (EFSFL) via experimental and computational studies. Methods: After inducing oxidative damage with FeSO4, we treated the tissues with different concentrations of EFSFL. An in-vitro analysis of EFSFL was carried out to determine its potential for antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities. We also measured the levels of CAT, SOD, GSH, and MDA. Results and discussion: EFSFL exhibited anti-inflammatory properties through membrane stabilizing properties (IC50 = 572.79 μg/ml), proteinase inhibition (IC50 = 319.90 μg/ml), and inhibition of protein denaturation (IC50 = 409.88 μg/ml). Furthermore, EFSFL inhibited α-amylase (IC50 = 169.77 μg/ml), α-glucosidase (IC50 = 293.12 μg/ml) and DPP-IV (IC50 = 380.94 μg/ml) activities, respectively. Our results indicated that induction of tissue damage reduced the levels of GSH, SOD, and CAT activities, and increased MDA levels. However, EFSFL treatment restores these levels to near normal. GC-MS profiling shows that EFSFL contains 13 compounds, with piperine being the most abundant. In silico interaction of the phytoconstituents using molecular and ensembled-based docking revealed strong binding tendencies of two hit compounds to DPP IV (alpha-caryophyllene and piperine with a binding affinity of -7.8 and -7.8 Kcal/mol), α-glucosidase (alpha-caryophyllene and piperine with a binding affinity of -9.6 and -8.9 Kcal/mol), and to α-amylase (piperine and Benzocycloheptano[2,3,4-I,j]isoquinoline, 4,5,6,6a-tetrahydro-1,9-dihydroxy-2,10-dimethoxy-5-methyl with a binding affinity of -7.8 and -7.9 Kcal/mol), respectively. These compounds also presented druggable properties with favorable ADMET. Conclusively, the antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities of EFSFL could be due to the presence of secondary metabolites.

The African cherry: A review of the botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, and biological activities of Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae), commonly known as "Pygeum" or "African cherry", occurs in mainland montane forests scattered across sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, and some surrounding islands. Traditionally, decoctions of the stem-bark are taken orally for the treatment of a wide variety of conditions, such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), stomach ache, chest pain, malaria, heart conditions, and gonorrhoea, as well as urinary and kidney diseases. The timber is used to make axe handles and for other household needs. The dense wood is also sawn for timber.

AIM

The fragmented information available on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and biological activities of the medicinally important P. africana was collated, organised, and analysed in this review, to highlight knowledge voids that can be addressed through future research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A bibliometric analysis of research output on P. africana was conducted on literature retrieved, using the Scopus® database. The trend in the publications over time was assessed and a network analysis of collaborations between countries and authors was carried out. Furthermore, a detailed review of the literature over the period 1971 to 2021, acquired through Scopus, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Pubmed, Scirp, DOAJ and Google Scholar, was conducted. All relevant abstracts, full-text articles and various book chapters on the botanical and ethnopharmacological aspects of P. africana, written in English and German, were consulted.

RESULTS

A total of 455 documents published from 1971 to 2021, were retrieved using the Scopus search. Analysis of the data showed that the majority of these documents were original research articles, followed by reviews and lastly a miscellaneous group comprising conference papers, book chapters, short surveys, editorials and letters. Data were analysed for annual output and areas of intense research focus, and countries with high research output, productive institutions and authors, and collaborative networks were identified. Prunus africana is reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti-asthmatic, anti-androgenic, antiproliferative and apoptotic activities amongst others. Phytosterols and other secondary metabolites such as phenols, triterpenes, fatty acids, and linear alcohols have been the focus of phytochemical investigations. The biological activity has largely been ascribed to the phytosterols (mainly 3-β-sitosterol, 3-β-sitostenone, and 3-β-sitosterol-glucoside), which inhibit the production of prostaglandins in the prostate, thereby suppressing the inflammatory symptoms associated with BPH and chronic prostatitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Many of the ethnobotanical assertions for the biological activity of P. africana have been confirmed through in vitro and in vivo studies. However, a disparity exists between the biological activity of the whole extract and that of single compounds isolated from the extract, which were reported to be less effective. This finding suggests that a different approach to biological activity studies should be encouraged that takes all secondary metabolites present into consideration. A robust technique, such as multivariate biochemometric data analysis, which allows for a holistic intervention to study the biological activity of a species is suggested. Furthermore, there is a need to develop rapid and efficient quality control methods for both raw materials and products to replace the time-consuming and laborious methods currently in use.

Herbal medicine used in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases in the Rif, North of Morocco

Background: Since the dawn of time, Moroccans have used medicinal plants as a popular remedy to treat a wide range of human and cattle health issues. Nonetheless, very little research has been conducted in the past to record and disseminate indigenous ethnopharmacological knowledge adequately. This study was conducted in the Rif and attempted to identify medicinal plants used by indigenous people to treat cardiovascular problems and the ethnomedicinal knowledge linked with them.

Methods: The ethnobotanical study was carried out in the Moroccan Rif area over 2 years, from 2016 to 2018. We questioned 520 traditional herbalists and consumers of these herbs in total. The gathered data were examined and contrasted using quantitative ethnobotanical indicators such as family importance value (FIV), the relative frequency of citation (RFC), plant part value (PPV), fidelity level (FL), and informant consensus factor (ICF).

Results: The findings analysis revealed the presence of 33 plant species classified into 20 families, with the Poaceae dominating (7 species). Regarding disorders treated, the category of cardiac arrhythmias has the greatest ICF (0.98). The study discovered that the leaves were the most often utilized portion of the plants (PPV = 0.353) and that the most frequently used preparation was a decoction (31%).

Conclusions: The current study’s findings revealed the presence of indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge of medicinal plants in the Moroccan Rif to treat cardiovascular illnesses. Further phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological investigations should be conducted to identify novel drugs from these documented medicinal plants.

Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by the Yao people in Gongcheng County, Guangxi, China

BACKGROUND

Gongcheng Yao Autonomous County (Gongcheng) is typical for the Yao people in northeastern Guangxi, southern China. The Yao people have a long history of using medicinal plants. In this study, we used ethnobotanical methods to collect traditional knowledge regarding herbal medicines in Gongcheng. Our study provides fundamental data for developing and applying local ethnic medicines and their protection.

METHODS

Ethnobotanical data were collected from 103 villages in nine townships from 2014 to 2018 in Gongcheng. A total of 352 informants (279 male and 73 female) were interviewed through semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, and guided field walks. All the informants were local inhabitants aged between 28 and 101 years of age, of which 40 key informants were selected based on the recommendations of knowledgeable elders and local medical institutions. The informant consensus factor (ICF) was used to evaluate the degree and importance of differences in medicinal plant species and calculated the relative frequencies of citation (RFC) for the recorded medicinal plants.

RESULTS

Data from 352 local healers were collected for the study. The Guanyin and Sanjiang townships had the highest distribution of per capita healers (Pch), while the Gongcheng, Lianhua, and Ping'an townships were relatively lower. Of the 352 local healers, more than half were older than 60 years of age and therefore faced the problem of suitable successors and potential loss of traditional medicinal knowledge. There are 12 types of diseases treated by local healers in the study area, and most of the types had a high ICF value. The highest ICF (0.80) was reported for digestive system disease, followed by urinary system disease (0.78) and nervous system disease (0.77). Traumatic injury and orthopedics, digestive system, and rheumatic disease are the most common ailments. The RFC value calculated in 33 medicinal plant species (with an FC of more than 5) ranged from 0.024 to 0.056. The higher RFC values included Kadsura longipedunculata, Schefflera heptaphylla, Plantago asiatica, etc. The most commonly used medicinal method was decoction; plasters, creams, and some form of moxibustion and cupping skills were locally practiced, but only rarely. The local healers used 306 medicinal plant species (116 families and 255 genera). Herbal plants were most commonly used among these, with whole plants and roots being favored.

CONCLUSION

The Yao people are highly skilled at using medicinal plants to treat various diseases in Gongcheng. Their treatment methods are varied, convenient, and efficient. Due to the impact of urbanization and economic development, knowledge of traditional medicine is under threat, with declining numbers of local healers and a lack of suitable successors. In order to protect and inherit Yao's traditional medicinal knowledge, it is necessary to educate young healers and to protect biodiversity.

Ethnomedicinal study of medicinal plants used by Mizo tribes in Champhai district of Mizoram, India

BACKGROUND

Medicinal plants have been used countless times for curing diseases mainly in developing countries. They are easily available with little to no side effects when compared to modern medicine. This manuscript encompasses information on ethnomedicinal plants in Champhai district, located in the North East Region (NER) of India. The region lies within Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot. This study will be the first quantitative report on the ethnomedicinal plants used by the local tribes of this region. Knowledge of medicinal plants is mostly acquired by word of mouth, and the knowledge is dying among the local youths with the prevalence of modern medicine. Hence, there is urgency in deciphering and recording such information.

METHODS

Information was gathered through interviews with 200 informants across 15 villages of the Champhai district. From the data obtained, we evaluate indices such as used report (UR), frequency of citation (FC), informant consensus factor (Fic), cultural values (CVs) and relative importance (RI) for all the plant species. Secondary data were obtained from scientific databases such as Pubmed, Sci Finder and Science Direct. The scientific name of the plants was matched and arranged in consultation with the working list of all plant species ( http://www.theplantlist.org ).

RESULTS

Totally, 93 plant species from 53 families and 85 genera were recorded. The most common families are Euphorbiaceae and Asteraceae with six and five species representatives, respectively. Leaves were the most frequently used part of a plant and were usually used in the form of decoction. Curcuma longa has the most cultural value (27.28 CVs) with the highest used report (136 FC), and the highest RI value was Phyllanthus emblica. The main illness categories as per Frequency of citation were muscle/bone problem (0.962 Fic), gastro-intestinal disease (0.956 Fic) and skin care (0.953 Fic).

CONCLUSION

The people of Mizoram living in the Champhai district have an immense knowledge of ethnomedicinal plants. There were no side effects recorded for consuming ethnomedicinal plants. We observed that there is a scope of scientific validation of 10 plant species for their pharmacological activity and 13 species for the phytochemical characterisation or isolation of the phytochemicals. This might pave the path for developing a scientifically validated botanical or lead to semisyntheic derivatives intended for modern medicine.

Indirect in vitro Regeneration of the Medicinal Plant, Aspilia africana, and Histological Assessment at Different Developmental Stages

The medicinal plant, Aspilia africana, has been traditionally used in several African countries to treat many diseases such as tuberculosis, cough, inflammation, malaria, osteoporosis, and diabetes. In this study, we developed a protocol for in vitro propagation of A. africana using indirect shoot organogenesis from leaf and root explants of in vitro-grown seedlings and assessed the tissues at different developmental stages. The highest callus induction (91.9 ± 2.96%) from leaf explants was in the Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium augmented with 1.0 mg/L 6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 1.0 mg/L 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) while from root explants, the highest callus induction (92.6 ± 2.80%) was in the same plant tissue culture medium augmented with 0.5 mg/L BAP and 1.0 mg/L 2,4-D. The best shoot regeneration capacity from leaf-derived calli (i.e., 80.0 ± 6.23% regeneration percentage and 12.0 ± 6.23 shoots per callus) was obtained in medium augmented with 1.0 mg/L BAP and 0.05 mg/L α-Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA); the best regeneration capacity for root-derived calli (i.e., 86.7 ± 6.24% shoot regeneration percentage and 14.7 ± 1.11 shoots per callus) was obtained in the MS medium augmented with 1.0 mg/L BAP, 0.05 mg/L NAA, and 0.1 mg/L Thidiazuron (TDZ). Regenerated plantlets developed a robust root system in 1/2 MS medium augmented with 0.1 mg/L NAA and had a survival rate of 93.6% at acclimatization. The in vitro regenerated stem tissue was fully differentiated, while the young leaf tissue consisted of largely unorganized and poorly differentiated cells with large intercellular airspaces typical of in vitro leaf tissues. Our study established a protocol for the indirect regeneration of A. africana and offers a basis for its domestication, large-scale multiplication, and germplasm preservation. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to develop an indirect regeneration protocol for A. africana and conduct anatomical assessment through the different stages of development from callus to a fully developed plantlet.

Herbal plants traded at the Kaili medicinal market, Guizhou, China

BACKGROUND

Marketplaces reflect not only the commerce of an area, but also its culture. In Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture with Kaili as its capital, Guizhou Province, China, traditional medicine is thriving in both rural and urban areas. The local people rely extensively on plants for traditional medicines, and these are commonly sold in local specialized markets. The Kaili medicinal market is the biggest in the prefecture. However, ethnobotanical study on herbal plants traded in the traditional market in Kaili has not been performed. The aims of this study are: (1) to document medicinal plants traded in the Kaili traditional market and the associated traditional knowledge; and (2) to analyze the level of agreement among vendors in the purported uses of medicinal plants by using informant consensus (FIC) and the fidelity level (FL).

METHODS

Market surveys were conducted in 2014-2019 to collect information about medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge. Information including vernacular names, preparation methods, and plant uses was obtained by interviewing 116 vendors of herbal plants. Specimens of fresh and dried herbs, collected as vouchers, were identified by the authors and other botanists at the Minzu University of China, and deposited in the herbarium at Minzu University of China. The level of agreement among information provided by different vendors was assessed using the FIC, and the percentage of vendors claiming the use of a certain medicinal plant for the same indication was assessed with the FL.

RESULTS

The Miao people comprise 53.4% of all informants in this study of medicinal plants. In total, 237 medicinal plant species traded in the Kaili traditional market were recorded. They belong to 219 genera and 107 families. These plants have been categorized into their purported treatments for 20 medical conditions. The inflammation category showed the highest FIC value of 0.95, showing the best agreement among market vendors claiming its usefulness to treat this condition. The FL index helped to identify 15 culturally important medicinal plant species based on the reported uses by 20 or more vendors in the market. Three medicinal plant species, Eleutherococcus gracilistylus, Sargentodoxa cuneata, and Stephania cepharantha, had an FL > 90%, being used to treat sprains/traumas, rheumatism, and heat/toxins.

CONCLUSIONS

The medicinal plants sold in the Kaili market are highly diverse and have unique medicinal characteristics. The Miao people often use traditional herbal plants for disease prevention and thereby prioritize the use of medicinal plants in everyday life. The future of this medicinal marketplace, however, is uncertain since few young people (< 30 years old) are vendors or customers. Therefore, it is urgent to conserve traditional ethnomedicinal culture in local communities and pass on the associated traditional knowledge to future generations in this prefecture. And the next step should include further studies on FL > 90% plants' chemistry, pharmacology, biological activity, and toxicity for potentially developing functional foods or pharmaceutical products.

Cultural significance of medicinal plants in healing human ailments among Guji semi-pastoralist people, Suro Barguda District, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Traditional medicine has remained the most affordable and easily accessible source of treatment in the primary healthcare system among communities unable to get modern medication. Ethiopian indigenous people have a long history of traditional plant utilization for treating ailments. The objectives of this study were to identify, document, and analyze the cultural significances of medicinal plants and their associated indigenous knowledge among Guji Semi-Pastoralist People, in Suro Barguda District, West Guji Zone, southern Ethiopia.

METHODS

Semi-structured interview, focus group discussions, participant observation, and walk-in-the-woods methods were used to gather medicinal plants data. The informant consensus factor (ICF) and fidelity level (FL) values were calculated using quantitative approaches to check the level of informants' agreement on plant use and the healing potential of medicinal plant species, respectively. Indigenous knowledge of the use of medicinal plants for medicinal purposes among different informant groups was compared using t tests with R software.

RESULTS

A total of 98 medicinal plant species belonging to 87 genera and 48 families were reported to be used for treating human ailments such as gastrointestinal diseases, breathing system diseases, dermatological diseases, and febrile diseases. Family Fabaceae was represented by 10 species followed by Lamiaceae (7 species). Four of the medicinal plants (Bothriocline schimperi Oliver & Hiern ex Bentham, Erythrina brucei Schweinf. emend. Gillett, Lippia adoensis Hochst. ex Walp. var. adoensis, and Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Hochst. ex Baker) were found endemic to Ethiopia and shrubs were more dominant (36 species). Ninety-one medicinal plant species were used for remedy preparation as soon as they were collected in their fresh form; 35.6% herbal medicine preparation was through crushing the plant parts and homogenizing them with cold and clean water; 159 (70.4%) traditional medicinal preparations were reported to be taken in their drinking form (orally).

CONCLUSION

The study indicated that the district is rich in different species of medicinal plants used to treat human ailments and indigenous knowledge about using these resources. Species with the recorded highest consensus for curative purposes are useful sources for further phytochemical and pharmacological validation for better utilization. Declining wild medicinal flora of the area calls for conservation priority.

Traditional knowledge about medicinal plant in the remote areas of Wari Tehsil, Dir Upper, Pakistan

Traditional medicine is cheaper and easily available to local people, to care for most frequent diseases in the Northern parts of Pakistan. Our study aimed at inventorying medicine from local plants, documenting their uses, and assessing their market value in 2015-2018 during spring, summer, and winter seasons. A total of 15 trips were made, 5 in each season. Semi-structured interviews with 165 inhabitant's age range between 20-80 years were conducted, analyzed the data is analyzed using Relative frequency of citation(RFC), Use Value(UV), Fidelity Level(FL), Informants consensus factor(ICF), and Jaccard index(JI) to find the most frequent and well-known used species in the area. A total of 86 species belonging to 39 vascular plant families, 33 genera were documented as medicinally important. Family Asteraceae was observed as the dominant family among all the families with 10 species, the leaf was the most used parts and decoction 36% was the most preferred preparation type. Herb was the predominant life form (67%). The maximum UV (0.92) was demonstrated by J. adhatoda L. species, while A. sativum L. shows maximum RFC (0.58), the highest ICF value represented by diarrhea and dermatitis 0.92, and high FL value is recorded 100%. According to our collections, wild species were 45%, invasive species were 38% and cultivated 17% recorded, dicots species were recorded more 81%. Seven 7 medicinal species is being economically important and export to the local and international market of the world, whereas P. integrima L. species were the most exported species according to the local dealers. The investigated area is rural and the local people depend on the area's plants for their health needs, and other uses like a vegetable, fuelwood, fodder, etc. The current result of RFC, UV, ICF, FL, and JI shows that medicinal flora needs to be pharmacologically and phytochemically investigated to prove their efficacy. The documentation of medicinal knowledge is important to preserve this precious old knowledge before it is lost forever, due to technological and environmental changes in the world.

Cyclotides Isolated From Violet Plants of Cameroon Are Inhibitors of Human Prolyl Oligopeptidase

Traditional medicine and the use of herbal remedies are well established in the African health care system. For instance, Violaceae plants are used for antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory applications in folk medicine. This study describes the phytochemical analysis and bioactivity screening of four species of the violet tribe Allexis found in Cameroon. Allexis cauliflora, Allexis obanensis, Allexis batangae and Allexis zygomorpha were evaluated for the expression of circular peptides (cyclotides) by mass spectrometry. The unique cyclic cystine-rich motif was identified in several peptides of all four species. Knowing that members of this peptide family are protease inhibitors, the plant extracts were evaluated for the inhibition of human prolyl oligopeptidase (POP). Since all four species inhibited POP activity, a bioactivity-guided fractionation approach was performed to isolate peptide inhibitors. These novel cyclotides, alca 1 and alca 2 exhibited IC₅₀ values of 8.5 and 4.4 µM, respectively. To obtain their amino acid sequence information, combinatorial enzymatic proteolysis was performed. The proteolytic fragments were evaluated in MS/MS fragmentation experiments and the full-length amino acid sequences were obtained by de novo annotation of fragment ions. In summary, this study identified inhibitors of the human protease POP, which is a drug target for inflammatory or neurodegenerative disorders.

Beneficial Role of Antioxidant Secondary Metabolites from Medicinal Plants in Maintaining Oral Health

Plant-derived phytochemicals have been touted as viable substitutes in a variety of diseases. All over the world, dentists have turned to natural remedies for dental cure due to the negative possessions of certain antibacterial mediators used in dentistry. Antimicrobial and other drugs are currently in use, but they show some side effects. Since ancient times, antioxidant EOs have been used for different ailments and have grown in popularity over time. Several in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trials have shown the safety and effectiveness of antioxidant essential oils (EOs) in oral health obtained from medicinal plants. The current review of literature provides a summary of secondary metabolites, more specifically EOs from 20 most commonly used medicinal plants and their applications in maintaining oral health. Dental caries and periodontal diseases are the most common and preventable global infectious diseases, with diseases of the oral cavity being considered major diseases affecting a person's health. Several clinical studies have shown a connection between oral diseases and oral microbiota. This review discusses the role of antioxidant secondary metabolites in inhibiting the growth of oral pathogens and reducing the formation of dental plaque, and as well as reducing the symptoms of oral diseases. This review article contributes a basic outline of essential oils and their healing actions.

Vhavenda Herbal Remedies as Sources of Antihypertensive Drugs: Ethnobotanical and Ethnopharmacological Studies

Hypertension is a dominant risk factor for the development of cardiovascular, kidney, and eye diseases. In Africa, it increasingly leads to hospitalisation and a strain on the public health system. However, rather than modern medicine, African traditional healers are the first choice for most South Africans. Therefore, this study is aimed at gathering information on herbal remedies traditionally used for the treatment of high blood pressure in Vhavenda, South Africa, and comparing this information with reports in the literature regarding plants used to manage high blood pressure. An ethnobotanical survey was carried out in Vhembe district and its environs with 53 herbalists and indigenous people aged between 36 and 66 years from January to October 2019 using a semistructured questionnaire. The plants were collected with each respondent; they were authenticated and kept in herbarium. A total of 51 different plants were mentioned as being most commonly used for hypertension treatment. Of these, 44 plants were identified, with those from the Fabaceae family followed by plants from the Celastraceae family being commonly mentioned. Of these, the Elaeodendron transvaalense, Tabernaemontana elegans, Elephantorrhiza elephantina, and Aloe vossii were commonly cited species. According to the literature data, most of the identified plants are yet to be scientifically investigated for the treatment of hypertension, whereas only preliminary investigations have been carried out on other plants, suggesting that these preliminary investigations may have highlight promising antihypertensive activities in vitro that are indicative of their potential as antihypertensive drugs. Therefore, there is a need to scientifically investigate the antihypertensive potentials of these plants as a potential source of antihypertensive treatment and compounds.

Medicinal plants used by 'root doctors', local traditional healers in Bié province, Angola

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study is one of the first post-civil war efforts to document traditional botanical knowledge in Bié province, central Angola, in a first step to bring more studies on the use of medicinal plant resources in this area so as to bring new insights into Angolan bio-cultural diversity.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Examine the variety of plant species used for medical purposes, as well as characterize their social and cultural values. Also, it is aimed to compare their uses in the studied region with those in Sub-Saharan Africa and report new ethnomedicinal uses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We documented traditional medicinal plant knowledge among professional herbalists in two areas in Bié province through participatory observation, semi-structured interviews and transect walks. Ethnobotanical information was quantified based on Use Reports to (1) rate traditional knowledge; and (2) determine most useful taxa.

RESULTS

In total, 10 traditional healers shared information on their knowledge. A total of 87 plant species distributed among 57 genera and 36 botanical families were documented with Fabaceae being the best-represented family with 18 species, followed by Phyllanthaceae (6), Apocynaceae (5), Asteraceae (5), Rubiaceae (5), Lamiaceae (4), and Ochnaceae (3). Most medicinal plants are usually gathered at a distance from human settlements because of the belief in the higher efficacy of 'wild' plants shared by all herbalists. Roots are the most common plant part used (79%), explaining why the consulted herbalists call themselves 'root doctors'.

CONCLUSIONS

The culturally most important medicinal species identified in this study, i.e. Securidaca longepedunculata, Garcinia huillensis, Annona stenophylla, Afzelia quanzensis and Strychnos cocculoides, were previously reported for the same use in neighbouring countries and elsewhere in Africa. Our study also indicates that there are several locally valuable species that have not yet been studied for their medical potential, to name a few: Alvesia rosmarinifolia, Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, Eriosema affine, Paropsia brazzaeana, Rhus squalida, Sclerocroton cornutus or Xylopia tomentosa. Moreover, the ethnomedicinal use of 26 species was reported for the first time to sub-Saharan Africa.

CLASSIFICATION

Ethnopharmacological field studies.

Ethnopharmacological study of native medicinal plants and the impact of pastoralism on their loss in arid to semiarid ecosystems of southeastern Iran

The purpose of this study was to gather ethnopharmacological information on plants used by the pastorals of southeastern Iran. The relationships between ecological value of the plant species and ethnobotanical indices were investigated. The loss of medicinal plants and its effective factors were also determined under nomadism and sedentary pastoralism. Ethnopharmacological information of plants was collected through interviews with 85 local people including nomads (43%) and sedentary pastorals (57%). Ethnobotanical indices including relative frequency of citation (RFC), relative importance (RI), cultural value (CV), and use value (UV) were estimated. Canopy cover and density of plant species were measured at 60 sampling plots in the exclosure, nomadic rangelands and sedentary pastorals rangelands. The Importance Value Index (IVI) and Relative Loss Index (RL) were estimated for both nomadic and sedentary pastoral rangelands. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to investigate the relationship between ethnobotanical indices and IVI of plant species. The Bayesian networks was used to investigate the relationship between ethnobotanical indices and plant species loss. In total, 156 medicinal plant species of 50 families were identified in the region by locals. Positive correlation was observed between ethnobotanical indices (RFC and RI) and ecological index (IVI). The mean decline of the ecological importance of medicinal species in sedentary pastoral rangelands was approximately three times higher than in nomadic rangelands. Bayesian networks showed that cultural value, seed exploitation and aerial parts exploitation had direct relationships with species loss in both nomadic and sedentary pastoral rangelands. Bunium persicum, an ecologically and socially important species, had been extensively harvested (more than 60%) in the both nomadic and sedentary pastoral rangelands, making it a priority species in future conservation programs. Medicinal plants had high ecological value and were severely exploited, threatening sustainability of arid and semiarid ecosystems. Local pastorals not only use medicinal plants as herbal remedies but also consider them as a source of income. Popular plants with multiple medicinal uses were more susceptible to loss. Higher medicinal knowledge of pastorals did not help to mitigate medicinal plant loss, requesting new plans to aware them to the circumstances that often leads to species removal from community. Given the importance, abundance and widespread use of medicinal plants, further studies can provide a basis for their conservation and for identifying new therapeutic effects of plants in the region.

Medicinal Plants for Treating Musculoskeletal Disorders among Karen in Thailand

Millions of people suffer from Musculoskeletal System Disorders (MSDs), including Karen people who work hard in the fields for their subsistence and have done so for generations. This has forced the Karen to use many medicinal plants to treat MSDs. We gathered data from 15 original references covering 27 Karen communities and we document 461 reports of the use of 175 species for treating MSDs among the Karen people in Thailand. The data were analyzed by calculating use values (UV), relative frequency of citation (RFC) and informant consensus factor (ICF). Many use reports and species were from Leguminosae and Zingiberaceae. Roots and leaves were the most used parts, while the preferred preparation methods were decoction and burning. Oral ingestion was the most common form of administration. The most common ailment was muscle pain. Sambucus javanica and Plantago major were the most important species because they had the highest and second-highest values for both UV and RFC, respectively. This study revealed that the Karen people in Thailand use various medicinal plants to treat MSDs. These are the main resources for the further development of inexpensive treatments of MSDs that would benefit not only the Karen, but all people who suffer from MSD.

Medicinal Plants Used in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality, Southern Ghana: An Ethnobotanical Study

Background: The in-depth traditional knowledge of medicinal plants is at risk of extinction due to the dependency on oral transmission, and as such, there is an urgent need to document such knowledge. This study aimed to document indigenous uses of medicinal plants among community members in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality. Methods: Data was collected in 2016 from community members and local herbalists in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality through a semi-structured questionnaire. Statistical tools and ethnobotanical indices, i.e., informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL), and use value (UV) were used to analyse the data. Results: One hundred and six medicinal plants belonging to 45 families were reported to cure 68 different human diseases. The most frequently used plant part in this study was the leaves (52%). Decoction (57.5%) and oral administration (58.3%) were the most utilised herbal preparation and administration route respectively. Cleistopholis patens had the highest UV (0.54) with pain &amp; fevers and skin diseases having the highest ICF values (0.88 and 0.85 respectively). Furthermore, new medicinal uses of Hilleria latifolia and ten other species were recorded for the treatment of the traditional local disease, aseram. Conclusions: The current knowledge and uses of medicinal plants are still high in the study area based on the high degree of consensus among informants. This study could allow for the preservation of knowledge and biodiversity of medicinal plants, both of which are threatened with extinction.

Ethnobotanical knowledge of the lay people of Blouberg area (Pedi tribe), Limpopo Province, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Limpopo province, South Africa, has a rich plant diversity and is referred to as one of the hotspots areas within the country. The aim of the current work was to identify and document medicinal plant species used by the indigenous Pedi people of Blouberg area, Limpopo Province, South Africa.

METHODS

A total of 40 informants which includes both traditional healers and medicinal plant sellers were randomly selected and asked about the plant species used in treatment of variety of infections using a structured questionnaire. Follow-up visits and various field walks were also used to identify and document various plant species used in Traditional medicine (TM). The interviews were carried out from April 2008 to June 2016 using indigenous language (Sehananwa).

RESULTS

A total of 82 medicinal plants species belonging to 42 families have been collected, identified and documented. About 46.34% of the plant species were herbs, followed by trees (25.61%), shrubs (20.73%) and climbers (7.32%). The most used plant parts are roots and rhizomes (58.58%). Peltophorum africanum Sond revealed frequency index of greater than 70 and is used in combination with other plants species to treat various pathogenic infections. Most of the plant species reported are used in the treatment of sexually transmitted infections (24), management of HIV-AIDS (15) and stomach ache (14). Our informants indicated that the use of plant medicines in combinations is also applied to cure pathogenic infections.

CONCLUSION

The current study demonstrate that the indigenous people of Blouberg area, Limpopo Province harbours an important information about the vegetation around them. The plant species are used in the treatment of various pathogenic infections, offers fruits as additional source of food and form integral part of other medicinal products that may in turn produce income.

Medicinal plants used by the people of Nsukka Local Government Area, south-eastern Nigeria for the treatment of malaria: An ethnobotanical survey

ETHNOBOTANICAL RELEVANCE

Malaria is a serious public health problem especially in sub-Saharan African countries such as Nigeria. The causative parasite is increasingly developing resistance to the existing drugs. There is urgent need for alternative and affordable therapy from medicinal plants which have been used by the indigenous people for many years.

AIM OF STUDY

This study was conducted to document the medicinal plant species traditionally used by the people of Nsukka Local Government Area in south-eastern Nigeria for the treatment of malaria.

METHODS

A total of 213 respondents, represented by women (59.2%) and men (40.8%), were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The results were analysed and discussed in the context of previously published information on anti-malarial and phytochemical studies of the identified plants.

RESULTS

The survey revealed that 50 plant species belonging to 30 botanical families were used in this region for the treatment of malaria. The most cited families were Apocynaceae (13.3%), Annonaceae (10.0%), Asteraceae (10.0%), Lamiaceae (10.0%), Poaceae (10.0%), Rubiaceae (10.0%) and Rutaceae (10.0%). The most cited plant species were Azadirachta indica (11.3%), Mangifera indica (9.1%), Carica papaya (8.5%), Cymbopogon citratus (8.5%) and Psidium guajava (8.5%).

CONCLUSION

The present findings showed that the people of Nsukka use a large variety of plants for the treatment of malaria. The identified plants are currently undergoing screening for anti-malarial, toxicity and chemical studies in our laboratory.

Indigenous uses of ethnomedicinal plants among forest-dependent communities of Northern Bengal, India

BACKGROUND

Traditional knowledge on ethnomedicinal plant is slowly eroding. The exploration, identification and documentation on utilization of ethnobotanic resources are essential for restoration and preservation of ethnomedicinal knowledge about the plants and conservation of these species for greater interest of human society.

METHODS

The study was conducted at fringe areas of Chilapatta Reserve Forest in the foothills of the eastern sub-Himalayan mountain belts of West Bengal, India, from December 2014 to May 2016. Purposive sampling method was used for selection of area. From this area which is inhabited by aboriginal community of Indo-Mongoloid origin, 400 respondents including traditional medicinal practitioners were selected randomly for personal interview schedule through open-ended questionnaire. The questionnaire covered aspects like plant species used as ethnomedicines, plant parts used, procedure for dosage and therapy.

RESULTS

A total number of 140 ethnomedicinal species was documented, in which the tree species (55) dominated the lists followed by herbs (39) and shrubs (30). Among these total planted species used for ethnomedicinal purposes, 52 species were planted, 62 species growing wild or collected from the forest for use and 26 species were both wild and planted. The present study documented 61 more planted species as compared to 17 planted species documented in an ethnomedicinal study a decade ago. The documented species were used to treat 58 human diseases/ailments including nine species used to eight diseases/ailments of domestic animals. Stomach-related problems were treated by maximum number of plants (40 species) followed by cuts and wounds with 27 plant species and least with one species each for 17 diseases or ailments. Maximum number of 12 diseases/ailments was cured by Melia azedarach followed by Centella asiatica and Rauvolfia serpentina which were used to cure 11 diseases/ailments each.

CONCLUSIONS

The list of 140 plant species indicates that the Chilapatta Reserve Forest and its fringe areas are rich in biodiversity of ethnobotanical plant species. Rauvolfia serpentina were the most valuable species in terms of its maximal use with higher use value. The documentation of 78 species maintained in the home gardens indicates the community consciousness on the conservation values of these ethnobotanical species. The communities should be encouraged with improved cultivation techniques of commercially viable ethnobotanical species through capacity building, timely policy intervention along with strong market linkage. This will ensure income generation and livelihood improvement and ultimate conservation of these species.

Ethnopharmacological Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Properties of Croton macrostachyus Hochst. Ex Delile: A Comprehensive Review

Croton macrostachyus is widely used as herbal medicine by the indigenous people of tropical Africa. The potential of C. macrostachyus as herbal medicine, the phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties of its parts used as herbal medicines are reviewed. The extensive literature survey revealed that C. macrostachyus is traditionally used to treat or manage at least 81 human and animal diseases and ailments. The species is used as herbal medicine for diseases and ailments such as abdominal pains, cancer, gastrointestinal disorders, malaria, pneumonia, sexually transmitted infections, skin infections, typhoid, and wounds and as ethnoveterinary medicine. Multiple classes of phytochemicals such as alkaloids, amino acids, anthraquinones, carbohydrates, cardiac glycosides, coumarins, essential oil, fatty acids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, phlobatannins, polyphenols, phytosteroides, saponins, sterols, tannins, terpenoids, unsaturated sterol, vitamin C, and withanoides have been isolated from the species. Pharmacological studies on C. macrostachyus indicate that it has a wide range of pharmacological activities such as anthelmintic, antibacterial, antimycobacterial, antidiarrhoeal, antifungal, anticonvulsant and sedative, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antileishmanial, antioxidant, antiplasmodial, and larvicidal effects. Croton macrostachyus has potential as a possible source of a wide range of pharmaceutical products for the treatment of a wide range of both human and animal diseases and ailments.

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used as insects repellents in six malaria endemic localities of Cameroon

BACKGROUND

The combined efforts to combat outdoor/indoor transmission of malaria parasites are hampered by the emerging vector resistance in a wide variety of malaria-endemic settings of Africa and the rest of the world, stressing the need for alternative control measures. This study aimed at documenting insect's repellent plant species used by indigenous populations of 6 localities of East, South, West and Centre regions of Cameroon.

METHODS

Information was gathered through face-to-face interviews guided by a semi-structured questionnaire on the knowledge of medicinal plants with insect repellent properties.

RESULTS

A total of 182 informants aged from 25 to 75 years were recruited by convenience from May to June 2015. The informants had general knowledge about insects' repellent plants (78.6%). A total of 16 plant species were recorded as insects' repellents with 50% being trees. The most cited plants were Canarium schweinfurthii (Burseraceae) (in four localities, 58/182), Elaeis guineensis (Arecaceae) (in three localities, 38/182), Chromolaena odorata (Compositae) (16/182) and Citrus limon (Rutaceae) (11/182) in two localities each. Among the repellent plant species recorded, 50% were reported to be burnt to produce in-house smokes, 31.2% were mashed and applied on the body, and 18.8% were hung in the houses. The leaf was the most commonly used plant part (52.9%), followed by the bark (17.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

This study has shown that rural populations of the 6 targeted localities possess indigenous knowledge on repellent plants that are otherwise cost-effective and better choice for repelling insects including malaria-transmitting mosquitoes. Meanwhile, such practices should be validated experimentally and promoted as sustainable malaria transmission control tools in the remotely located communities.

AN ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS USED IN VILLAGES UNDER JONGILANGA TRIBAL COUNCIL, MPUMALANGA, SOUTH AFRICA

Background:

Medicinal plants remain an integral part of the lives of people in rural areas. The aim of this study was to document information about the medicinal plants used by Shangaan people in villages under Jongilanga tribal council, Bushbuckridge municipality, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa.

Materials and Methods:

An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire with 15 traditional healers as informants; one of them also served as a field guide during data collection. Results were analysed by using various quantitative indices of information consensus factor (ICF), use report (UR), frequency citation (FC) and relative frequency citation (RFC).

Results and Methods:

The study reported 86 medicinal plants used in villages for the treatment of various ailments, the majority (25 species) of which were used for urino-genital disorders. The Fabaceae family was the most represented family (17 species) of all the medicinal plants recorded in this study. The roots were the most frequently used plant part, accounting for 56% of the plants reported, and decoctions were often used in the preparation of herbal remedies. Respiratory diseases had the highest ICF value recorded among the 8 categories of ailments. The highest use report was reported for Combretum collinum (4), while the FC and RFC values (15) were highest in 12 plant species. The study revealed that medicinal plants are still widely used in rural areas and this documentation can serve as an ethno pharmacological basis for selecting plants with potential pharmaceutical properties.

Medicinal Plants Used for Treating Reproductive Health Care Problems in Cameroon, Central Africa1

Medicinal Plants Used for Treating Reproductive Health Care Problems in Cameroon, Central Africa. Approximately 80% of the African population uses traditional plants to deal with health problems, basically because of their easy accessibility and affordability. This study was carried out to document indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used by traditional healers and elders in the treatment of reproductive health care in the Bamboutos Division of the West Region in Cameroon, Central Africa. The research methods used included semi-structured interviews and participative field observations. For the interviews, 70 knowledgeable respondents (40 traditional healers and 30 elders) were selected via purposive sampling. Voucher specimens were collected with the help of respondents, processed into the Cameroon National Herbarium in Yaoundé following standard methods, identified with the help of pertinent floras and taxonomic experts, and submitted to Department of Botany at the University of Dschang. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze and summarize ethnobotanical information obtained. Informant consensus factors (ICF) were used to elucidate the agreement among informants on the species to be used in the treatment within a category of illness. The results showed that a total of 70 plant species from 37 families (mostly of the Asteraceae [8 species], Euphorbiaceae [7], and Acanthaceae and Bignoniaceae [4 each]) are used in the treatment of 27 reproductive ailments, with the highest number of species (37) being used against venereal diseases, followed by female (29) and male infertility (21), respectively. Leaves (47.3%) were the most commonly harvested plant parts and the most common growth forms harvested were the herbs (45.7%), followed by shrubs (30%). Sixty percent of plant material was obtained from the wild ecosystems. Herbal remedies were mostly prepared in the form of decoction (66.2%) and were taken mainly orally. Informant consensus about usages of medicinal plants ranged from 0.5 to 1.0 with an average value of 0.91. It can be concluded that medicinal plants have played and will continue to play major roles in the management of reproductive healthcare in the study area.

Ethnobotanical survey of traditionally used medicinal plants for infections of skin, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract and the oral cavity in Borabu sub-county, Nyamira county, Kenya

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Different communities throughout the world have specialized and profound knowledge on the use medicinal plants for various diseases. However, the detailed information on the respective use may extinct in near future as this knowledge is passed only orally among generations in most of the communities.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present survey aimed to document the use of medicinal plants by traditional healers from the Kisii community, Borabu sub-county in Nyamira county, Kenya, to treat infections of the urinary tract, oral cavity, gastrointestinal system and the skin and to evaluate the social context in which the healers work and practice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Validated questionnaires were applied to 50 traditional healers in the study region, followed by interviews and structured conversations. Information on the relevant traditionally used medicinal plants and their use were documented, including sampling and identification of voucher specimens.

RESULTS

The ethnopharmacological survey revealed 25 medicinal plant species belonging to 19 families. It got evident that most of these species will be extinct in the near future unless appropriate measures are taken, as it turned out difficult to collect some of the wild growing species. Elaeodendron buchananii Loes, Erlangea marginata S. Moore, Acacia gerrardii Benth., Balanites orbicularis Sprague, Solanum renschii Vatke and Orthosiphon hildebrandtii Vatke have not been described before for its medicinal use. Among the 25 species collected from the various regions of Borabu sub-county Urtica dioica L. was the only medicinal plant that was collected from all regions. In contrast Erythrina abyssinica and Rhus natalensis were found in only two regions of the study area.

CONCLUSION

The traditional medicinal use of the reported plants for infections should be documented and a great need of awareness from scientists and local government for improved preservation or field cultivation of some species is obvious.

Medicinal plants used by traditional healers for the treatment of malaria in the Chipinge district in Zimbabwe

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Because about 50% of the Zimbabwean population is at risk of contracting malaria each year, the majority of people, especially in rural areas, use traditional plant-based medicines to combat malaria. This explorative ethnobotanical survey was undertaken to document how malaria is conceptualized and diagnosed by traditional healers, and to record the medicinal plants used in the prevention and treatment of malaria, their mode of preparation and administration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research was conducted in three villages in Headman Muzite׳s area and in Chiriga village. These villages are located in the Chipinge district in the Manicaland Province in Zimbabwe.Traditional healers were selected with the assistance of the headman of the Muzite area and a representative of the Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 traditional healers from four villages in the Chipinge district in Zimbabwe.

RESULTS

In total, 28 plants from 16 plant families are used by the healers who manage malaria with medicinal plants. The most cited plant is Cassia abbreviata Oliv. (Leguminosae) followed by Aristolochia albida Duch (Aristolociaceae) and Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. (Rutaceae). Roots (55.3%) are the most common part used. Most of the plant parts used to treat malaria are stored as dried powders in closed bottles. The powders are soaked in hot or cold water and the water extract is taken as the active medicine. The healers consider their medicinal knowledge as a spiritual family heritage. Only 25% of the healers refer the malaria patients that do not respond to their treatment to hospital - they believe evil spirits cause their remedies to failure and they would rather try a different plant or perform a cleansing ceremony.

CONCLUSIONS

Local knowledge of medicinal plants in the treatment of malaria still exists in all four villages surveyed and traditional healers appear to play an important role in primary health care services in this remote rural area in Zimbabwe. This explorative survey underscores the need to preserve and document traditional healing for managing malaria and for more future scientific research on the plants to determine their efficacy and their safety. This could improve their traditional anti-malarial recipes and might contribute to a better integration of Zimbabwean traditional medicine into the national health system in the future.

Medicinal plants cultivated in Bapedi traditional healers homegardens, Limpopo Province, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Plants used for medicinal purposes are very common feature in Bapedi traditional healer's home-gardens, but information about their diversity and application is not available.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To investigate medicinal plants found in Bapedi healer's home-gardens, 51 traditional health practitioners were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire in 17 municipalities of the Limpopo Province of South Africa, during the first half of 2013.

RESULTS

A total of 43 plant species (67.4% indigenous and 32.5% exotics) from 32 families, mostly from the Asteraceae and Apocynaceae (9.3% each) were documented. Species cultivated in home-gardens were used to treat three major groups of ailments that include sexually transmitted infections (44.1%), chronic diseases of life style (44.1%) and reproductive ailments (32.5%). The exotics Catharanthus roseus (54.9%) and Carica papaya (15.6%) was the most cultivated. Threatened (11.6%) and protected (6.9%) species are also present in home-gardens, mostly due to their unavailability in natural areas.

CONCLUSION

This study concludes that the practice of cultivating medicinal plant species in home-gardens is a positive development that in the long term will sustain both species and accompanying indigenous knowledge, as well as preserve the cultural identity of the Bapedi.

Medicinal plants used in traditional medicine by Oromo people, Ghimbi District, Southwest Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Ethiopia is one of the six centres of biodiversity in the world with several topographies, climatic conditions and various ethnic cultures. Ethnobotanical study is a real and encourageable in rich biological resource areas for medicinal plant identification, documentation, ranking, conservation and sustainable usages. The purpose of this study was to identify the most effective medicinal plants for specific treatment through priority ranking and to assess the status of the transfer of Traditional Botanical Knowledge (TBK) based on age groups and educational levels.

METHODOLOGY

Ethnobotanical data were collected using field observation and semi-structured interview, A total of 30 key informants and 165 community members were interviewed and data on medicinal plant species and associated knowledge were recorded, quantified and verified using several preference ranking methods.

RESULTS

The study revealed a total of 49 medicinal plant species (belonging to 31 families and 46 genera) used to treat various human ailments, the majority of which 40 (81.6%) species were collected from wild while the rests from home garden. Herbs constituted the largest growth habit (18 species, 37%) followed by trees (16 species, 32%) and shrubs (15 species, 31%). Leaf `17 (35%) is the plant part widely used followed by root 13 (27%), leafy-stem 5 (10%), and seed 6 (12%). Oral administration was the dominant route (63%), followed by dermal route (22%) and nasal (11%). The highest number of plant species being used for infectious (48%) followed by two or more diseases and non-infectious disease. Of five and seven medicinal plants of preference ranking the highest ranks were given first for Croton macrostaychus used for malaria treatment and for Prunus africana as ''rare" for immediate collection and use in the traditional treatment. Significantly higher average number of medicinal plants (p < 0.05) were reported by informants of higher institution (14.3 ± 34) and adult age groups (11.6 ± 43).

CONCLUSION

The Ghimbi people possess rich ethno-medicinal knowledge. This study can be used as a basis for developing management plans for conservation, sustainable use and drug development.

The genus spilanthes ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties: a review

Spilanthes spp. are popular, over-the-counter remedies; they are sold over the internet under various names and are widely used in traditional medicine in various cultures. This review will summarize the important reports on the ethnopharmacology, botany, phytochemistry, and pharmacological properties as described in the literature from recent years (1920 to 2013). Spilanthes spp. are used for more than 60 types of disorders. They are reported to contain a number of biologically active phytochemicals, although a large number of ethnopharmacological uses have been documented; only a few of these species have been investigated for their chemical and biological activities. The studies are carried out mainly on Spilanthes extracts and a few metabolites substantiate the uses of these plants in traditional medicine. Well-conducted pharmacological studies are still needed for several traditional indications, and the mechanisms of action by which the plant extracts and the active compounds exert their pharmacological effects remain to be studied. They are predominantly used as extracts in personal care products, traditional medicines, and the pharmaceutical and culinary areas. Suggestions are made regarding some of the possible mechanisms of action as to how the known compounds may exert their biological activity.

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in the treatment of malaria in Ogbomoso, Southwest Nigeria

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Malaria infection is the second largest killer disease after HIV in Nigeria. Failure of the orthodox medications due to drug adulteration, high cost of procurement of antimalarial drugs and inconvenience experienced in the use of high dosage of the new antimalarial drug combination therapy has turned the attention of the people in the world towards the use of local herbs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by the indigenous people of Ogbomoso for the treatment of malaria infection was conducted. Investigations were carried out on the names of plants, their parts (leaf, stem or root) used, method of preparing herbal antimalarial remedies, likely side effect and how it is administered were recorded through the use of a structured questionnaire.

RESULTS

The results of the survey revealed that 40 plant species from 32 plant families were mostly used for treating malaria infection in Ogbomoso. Twenty-three different antimalarial recipes were mentioned in the survey. The Asteraceae and Anacardinceae were the most represented plant families followed by Malvaceae, Solanaceae, Annonaceae, Poaceae, Rutaceae and Meliaceae. The leaf and the stem bark have been the most frequently used plant parts while concoction and decoction were the most common method of preparation. Treatment regimens of malaria generally included drinking, bathing and steam inhalation of the aqueous herbal preparations for 5-7 days or until symptoms of malaria disappear. About 53% of the plants mentioned in the survey had side effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Hence, the need for documentation of these plants for further investigation becomes necessary.

Cytotoxicity of Elaoephorbia drupifera and other Cameroonian medicinal plants against drug sensitive and multidrug resistant cancer cells

Background

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a major hurdle for cancer treatment worldwide and accounts for chemotherapy failure in over 90% of patients with metastatic cancer. Evidence of the cytotoxicity of Cameroonian plants against cancer cell lines including MDR phenotypes is been intensively and progressively provided. The present work was therefore designed to evaluate the cytotoxicity of the methanol extracts of twenty-two Cameroonian medicinal plants against sensitive and MDR cancer cell lines.

Methods

The methanol maceration was used to obtain the crude plant extracts whilst the cytotoxicity of the studied extracts was determined using a resazurin reduction assay.

Results

A preliminary assay on leukemia CCRF-CEM cells at 40 μg/mL shows that six of the twenty plant extract were able to enhance less than 50% of the growth proliferation of CCRF-CEM cells. These include Crinum zeylanicum (32.22%), Entada abyssinica (34.67%), Elaoephorbia drupifera (35.05%), Dioscorea bulbifera (45.88%), Eremomastax speciosa (46.07%) and Polistigma thonningii (45.11%). Among these six plants, E. drupifera showed the best activity with IC₅₀ values below or around 30 μg/mL against the nine tested cancer cell lines. The lowest IC₅₀ value of 8.40 μg/mL was recorded with the extract of E. drupifera against MDA-MB231 breast cancer cell line. The IC₅₀ values below 10 μg/mL were recorded with the extracts of E. drupifera against MDA-MB231 breast cancer cells, C. zeylanicum against HCT116 p53⁺/⁺ and HCT116p53^-/^- colon cancer cells and E. abyssinica against HCT116 p53⁺/⁺ cells.

Conclusion

The results of the present study provide evidence of the cytotoxic potential of some Cameroonian medicinal plants and a baseline information for the potential use of Elaoephorbia drupifera in the treatment of sensitive and drug-resistant cancer cell lines.

Cameroonian medicinal plants: a bioactivity versus ethnobotanical survey and chemotaxonomic classification

Background

In Cameroon herbs are traditionally used to meet health care needs and plans are on the way to integrate traditional medicine in the health care system, even though the plans have not been put into action yet. The country however has a rich biodiversity, with ~8,620 plant species, some of which are commonly used in the treatment of several microbial infections and a range of diseases (malaria, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, diabetes and tuberculosis).

Methods

Our survey consisted in collecting published data from the literature sources, mainly from PhD theses in Cameroonian university libraries and also using the author queries in major natural product and medicinal chemistry journals. The collected data includes plant sources, uses of plant material in traditional medicine, plant families, region of collection of plant material, isolated metabolites and type (e.g. flavonoid, terpenoid, etc.), measured biological activities of isolated compounds, and any comments on significance of isolated metabolites on the chemotaxonomic classification of the plant species. This data was compiled on a excel sheet and analysed.

Results

In this study, a literature survey led to the collection of data on 2,700 secondary metabolites, which have been previously isolated or derived from Cameroonian medicinal plants. This represents distinct phytochemicals derived from 312 plant species belonging to 67 plant families. The plant species are investigated in terms of chemical composition with respect to the various plant families. A correlation between the known biological activities of isolated compounds and the ethnobotanical uses of the plants is also attempted. Insight into future direction for natural product search within the Cameroonian forest and Savanna is provided.

Conclusions

It can be verified that a phytochemical search of active secondary metabolites, which is inspired by knowledge from the ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants could be very vital in a drug discovery program from plant-derived bioactive compounds.

Use and valuation of native and introduced medicinal plant species in Campo Hermoso and Zetaquira, Boyacá, Colombia

BACKGROUND

Medicinal plant species contribute significantly to folk medicine in Colombia. However, few local studies have investigated whether species used are introduced or native and whether there is a difference in importance of native and introduced medicinal plant species. The aim of the present study was to describe the use of medicinal plants within two municipalities, Campo Hermoso and Zetaquira, both in the department of Boyacá, Colombia and to assess the importance of native and introduced plants to healers, amateur healers and local people. As local healers including amateur healers have no history of introduced species our working hypotheses (H(1-2)) were that H(1): native and introduced medicinal plant species are of equal importance and H(2): healers and amateur healers do not differentiate in their preferences between native and introduced medicinal plant species.

METHODS

Ten villages were included in the study. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used including questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, in- depth interviews, and open talks. Voucher specimens were collected in home gardens and during field walks. For data analysis, we calculated use value indices and Jaccard index and tested for the above hypothesis using Spearman rank-correlation coefficients and Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney tests.

RESULTS

Eighty medicinal plant species were described by locals as the most frequently used. Of these, 78 species were taxonomically identified, distributed within 41 families and 74 genera, which included 35 native species and 43 introduced. The highest valued families were: Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Rutaceae and Verbenaceae. The species ranked highest according to their Use Values, in both municipalities, were Mentha suaveolens Ehrh., Ambrosia cumanensis Kunth, and Verbena littoralis Kunth. Introduced species were more important than native ones in Zetaquira, while there was no difference in importance in Campo Hermoso. While healers relied most on the uses of native species, amateur healers were inclined to rely on introduced species. Medicinal plant administration in both municipalities follow the usual pattern: Leaves are used most commonly prepared by decoction or infusion and administrated orally.

CONCLUSIONS

The high proportion of introduced plant species used in the local traditional medicines is similar to the results of a number of other ethnobotanical studies and emphasise the need for efforts to record and maintain traditional knowledge on native species.

Ethno medicinal survey of plants used by the indigenes of Rivers State of Nigeria

CONTEXT

The medicinal plants used in the traditional medicine of Rivers State of Nigeria were surveyed.

OBJECTIVE

The survey aims to identify and document the plants used amongst the indigenes of Rivers State.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted during a field trip to gather information from traditional medical practitioners (TMPs) and community elders.

RESULTS

Medicinal plant species (188) representing 169 genera and 82 families used in the ethno medicine of the people of Rivers State were recorded from 460 households. The most represented genera were Ipomoea and Citrus providing four species each. The most important species showed the highest Fidelity level (FL) value and these included Ageratum conyzoides L. (Asteraceae) (100%) and Tridax procumbens L. (Asteraceae) (100%). The most important categories of diseases were those that showed the highest Informant consensus factor (ICF) value of 0.99, such as dermal or digestive problems and fever/malaria. The most used plant part was leaves (42%), while decoction was the main method of drug preparation (36%).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The survey shows that more than half of the medicinal plants gathered in Rivers State are also used in other countries of the world for various ailments. The high values of ICF recorded indicate high degree of agreement among the informants, while the high FL values suggest the popular use of the plants. The survey provides a useful source of information for TMPs and medicinal plant researchers. These medicinal plants gathered may bring about drug discovery and may also be incorporated into the healthcare delivery system of the country.

Ethnomedicine of the Kagera Region, north western Tanzania. Part 3: plants used in traditional medicine in Kikuku village, Muleba District

BACKGROUND

The Kagera region of north western Tanzania has a rich culture of traditional medicine use and practice. Traditional medicines are the mainstay of healthcare in this region and are known to support the management of many illnesses such as malaria, bacterial infections, epilepsy, gynecological problems and others. However, most of the plants being used have either not been documented or evaluated for safety and efficacy or both. This study, the sixth of an ongoing series, reports on the medicinal plants that are used at Kikuku village, Muleba District.

METHODOLOGY

A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information on the common/local names of the plants, parts of the plants used, diseases treated, methods of preparing the herbal remedies, dosage of the remedies administered, frequency and duration of treatment and toxicity of the medicines. A literature review was carried out for information on the ethnomedical uses of the reported plants.

RESULTS

A total of 49 plant species belonging to 47 genera and 24 plant families were documented. The family Euphorbiaceae and Asteraceae had the highest representation. The plants are used for the treatment of skin conditions (10 plants; 20%), bacterial infections and wounds (14 plants; 28.6%), malaria (14 plants; 28.6%), gastrointestinal disorders (11 plants; 22.4%), gynecological problems including infertility (8 plants; 16.3%), hypertension (5 plants; 10.2%), viral infections (7 plants; 14.3%), chest problems (5 plants; 10.2%), diabetes (3 plants; 6.1%), cancer (2 plants; 4.1%), inflammatory conditions (arthritis, rheumatism), HIV and AIDS, and hernia each treated by 1 plant (3 plants in total; 6.1%). Information obtained from the literature indicate that 25 (51.0%) of the therapeutic claims are supported by laboratory results or have similar claims of ethnomedical use from other countries.

CONCLUSION

Herbal remedies comprise an important and effective component of the healthcare system in Kikuku village with plants in the families Euphorbiaceae and Asteraceae comprising an important part of plants used in the indigenous healthcare management in the village. Malaria and bacterial infections dominate the list of diseases that are managed using traditional medicines.

Ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants of the pantanal region (mato grosso, Brazil)

Traditional knowledge is an important source of obtaining new phytotherapeutic agents. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants was conducted in Nossa Senhora Aparecida do Chumbo District (NSACD), located in Poconé, Mato Grosso, Brazil using semi-structured questionnaires and interviews. 376 species of medicinal plants belonging to 285 genera and 102 families were cited. Fabaceae (10.2%), Asteraceae (7.82%) and Lamaceae (4.89%) families are of greater importance. Species with the greater relative importance were Himatanthus obovatus (1.87), Hibiscus sabdariffa (1.87), Solidago microglossa (1.80), Strychnos pseudoquina (1.73) and Dorstenia brasiliensis, Scoparia dulcis L., and Luehea divaricata (1.50). The informant consensus factor (ICF) ranged from 0.13 to 0.78 encompassing 18 disease categories,of which 15 had ICF greater than 0.50, with a predominance of disease categories related to injuries, poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes (ICF  =  0.78) having 65 species cited while 20 species were cited for mental and behavioral disorders (ICF  =  0.77). The results show that knowledge about medicinal plants is evenly distributed among the population of NSACD. This population possesses medicinal plants for most disease categories, with the highest concordance for prenatal, mental/behavioral and respiratory problems.

Ethnomedicinal study of plants used in villages around Kimboza forest reserve in Morogoro, Tanzania

BACKGROUND

An ethnomedicinal study was conducted to document medicinal plants used in the treatment of ailments in villages surrounding Kimboza forest reserve, a low land catchment forest with high number of endemic plant species.

METHODS

Ethnobotanical interviews on medicinal plants used to treat common illnesses were conducted with the traditional medical practitioners using open-ended semi -structured questionnaires. Diseases treated, methods of preparation, use and habitat of medicinal plants were recorded.

RESULTS

A total of 82 medicinal plant species belonging to 29 families were recorded during the study. The most commonly used plant families recorded were Fabaceae (29%), Euphorbiaceae (20%), Asteraceae and Moraceae (17% each) and Rubiaceae (15%) in that order. The most frequently utilized medicinal plant parts were leaves (41.3%), followed by roots (29.0%), bark (21.7%), seeds (5.31%), and fruits (2.6%). The study revealed that stomach ache was the condition treated with the highest percentage of medicinal plant species (15%), followed by hernia (13%), diarrhea (12), fever and wound (11% each), and coughs (10%). Majority of medicinal plant species (65.9%) were collected from the wild compared to only 26.7% from cultivated land.

CONCLUSIONS

A rich diversity of medicinal plant species are used for treating different diseases in villages around Kimboza forest reserve, with the wild habitat being the most important reservoir for the majority of the plants. Awareness programmes on sustainable utilization and active involvement of community in conservation programmes are needed.

Ethnobotanical study of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plant use by traditional healers in Oshikoto region, Namibia

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study was to establish a regional profile of the indigenous knowledge system (IKS) for medicinal plant use and cultural practices associated with the healing process of these plants by traditional healers in the Oshikoto region, Namibia.

METHODS

An ethnobotanical survey was undertaken to collect information from traditional healers during September and October 2008. Data was collected through the use of questionnaires and personal interviews during field trips in the ten constituencies of the Oshikoto region. A total of 47 respondents were interviewed with most of them aged 66 and above.

RESULTS

The traditional healers in Oshikoto region use 61 medicinal plant species that belong to 25 families for the treatment of various diseases and disorders with the highest number of species being used for mental diseases followed by skin infection and external injuries. Trees (28 species) were found to be the most used plants followed by herbs (15 species), shrubs (10 species) and climbers (4 species). The average of the informant consensus factor (F IC) value for all ailment categories was 0.75. High F IC values were obtained for Pergularia daemia, and Tragia okanyua, which were reported to treat weakness and dizziness problems, snake bite, swelling and cardiovascular problems indicating that these species traditionally used to treat these ailments are worth examining for bioactive compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

The traditional healers in Oshikoto possess rich ethno-pharmacological knowledge. This study allows for identifying many high value medicinal plant species, indicating high potential for economic development through sustainable collection of these medicinal plants.