Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets and management in far-west Nepal

Advances in sample preparation methods for pesticide residue analysis in medicinal plants: A focus on Nepal

Medicinal plant safety is a rising challenge worldwide due to the continued overuse of pesticides to their maximum residue limits. Due to the high demand for medicinal plants, their production is being increased and sometimes protected by pesticide use. The analysis of these residues requires robust analytical methods to ensure the safety and quality of medicinal plants. Developing effective sample preparation for detecting pesticides is challenging, due to their diverse natures, classes, and physico-chemical characteristics. Hence, existing techniques and strategies are needed to improve the reliability of the results. The review discusses the current state of sample preparation techniques, analytical methods, and instrumental technologies employed in pesticide residue analysis in medicinal plants. It highlights the challenges, limitations, and advancements in the field, providing insights into the analytical strategies used to detect and quantify pesticide residues. Reliable, accessible, affordable, and high-resolution analytical procedures are essential to ensure that pesticide levels in medicinal plants are effectively regulated. By understanding the complexities of pesticide residue analysis in medicinal plants, this review article aims to support the conservation of medicinal plant resources, promote public health, and contribute to the development of sustainable strategies for ensuring the safety and quality of medicinal plants in Nepal. The findings of this review will benefit researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders involved in the conservation of medicinal plant resources and the promotion of public health.

Chemical Profiling and Biological Activities on Nepalese Medicinal Plant Extracts and Isolation of Active Fraction of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis

The importance of medicinal plants for the treatment of different diseases is high from the aspects of the pharmaceutical industry and traditional healers. The present study involves nine different medicinal plants, namely, Neolamarckia cadamba, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Pogostemon benghalensis, Equisetum debile, Litsea monopetala, Spilanthes uliginosa, Desmostachya bipinnata, Mallotus philippensis, and Phoenix humilis, collected from Chitwan district of Nepal for biochemical analysis followed by the isolation of active plant fractions from the bioactive plant extract. The methanolic extracts of roots, barks, seeds, seed cover, and the other aerial parts of plants were used for the phytochemical analysis and biological activities. The DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging assay was adopted to evaluate the antioxidant activity. Antibacterial activity was evaluated using the agar well diffusion method. The antidiabetic activity was studied by the α-amylase enzyme inhibition assay. The highest antioxidant activity was observed in extracts of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis followed by Mallotus philippensis (seed cover), Pogostemon benghalensis, Litsea monopetala, Phoenix humilis, and Neolamarckia cadamba with IC50 values of 27.38 ± 1.35, 32.08 ± 2.81, 32.75 ± 2.13, 33.82 ± 1.07, 40.14 ± 0.93, and 50.44 ± 3.75 µg/mL, respectively. The highest antidiabetic activity was observed in extracts of Phoenix humilis followed by Desmostachya bipinnata and Pogostemon benghalensis with IC50 values of 95.69 ± 6.97, 99.24 ± 12.6, and 106.3 ± 12.89 µg/mL, respectively. The mild α-amylase enzyme inhibition was found in extracts of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Spilanthes uliginosa Swartz, Litsea monopetala, and Equisetum debile showing IC50 values of 110.4 ± 7.78, 115.98 ± 10.24, 149.83 ± 8.3, and 196.45 ± 6.04 µg/mL, whereas Mallotus Philippensis (seed cover), Mallotus philippensis (seed), and Desmostachya bipinnata showed weak α-amylase inhibition with IC50 values of 208.87 ± 1.76, 215.41 ± 2.09, and 238.89 ± 9.27 µg/mL, respectively. The extract of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis showed high zones of inhibition against S. aureus (ATCC 25923) and E. coli (ATCC 25922) of ZOI 26 and 22 mm, respectively. The chemical constituents isolated from the active plant Nyctanthes arbor-tristis were subjected to GCMS analysis where the major chemical compounds were 11,14,17-eicosatrienoic acid and methyl ester. These results support the partial scientific validation for the traditional uses of these medicinal plants in the treatment of diabetes and infectious diseases by the people living in different communities of Chitwan, Nepal.

Preliminary Study on the Antibacterial Activities and Antibacterial Guided Fractionation of Some Common Medicinal Plants Practices in Itum Bahal, Kathmandu Valley of Nepal

The aim of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial activities of selected medicinal plant practices by a traditional healer of the Newar community in Itum Bahal, Kathmandu, Nepal. The antibacterial activities of the methanolic extract (1 mg/disc) of fifteen medicinal plants were screened against two Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 and Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633) and two Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Salmonella typhi CCM 5445) using the disc diffusion method. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were calculated for the different fractions (hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, and acetone) of the plants having a significant antimicrobial effect. Only Quercus infectoria G. Olivier (galls) and Mallotus repandus (Willd.) Müll.Arg. (seeds) exhibited prominent antibacterial effects. The acetone fraction from Q. infectoria had the strongest antibacterial effect, with a 41.00 mm inhibition zone against S. aureus. In contrast, the ethyl acetate fraction in M. repandus exhibited the highest efficacy, producing a 29.00 mm inhibition zone against S. typhi. In a similar manner, in the case of Q. infectoria, the acetoe fraction depicted the lowest MIC (0.19 mg/mL) and MBC (0.98 mg/mL) values against S. aureus, whereas the ethyl acetate fraction of M. repandus was most significant, showing the lowest MIC and MBC of 0.25 and 0.53 mg/mL, respectively, against S. typhi. This study suggested that the acetone extract of Q. infectoria galls can be used as a potential source against Gram-positive bacteria, whereas the ethyl acetate extract of M. repandus seeds could serve as a useful source to inhibit Gram-negative bacteria. Furthermore, extensive scientific investigation is mandatory to ensure the proper use of folk medicines.

In Vitro and In Silico Analysis of Bergenia ciliata and Mimosa pudica for Inhibition of α-Amylase

The discovery of antidiabetic natural products is a flourishing field of opportunity in the sector of drug discovery. Various medicinal plants with diverse chemical constituents have been extensively studied for drug development. Bergenia ciliata and Mimosa pudica have been traditionally used for the treatment of diabetes and consist of valuable phytochemicals. In this study, we have analyzed total phenolic and flavonoid content along with the antioxidant and α-amylase inhibitory activity. The crude extract of B. ciliata contains higher levels of TPC whereas higher TFC was observed in M. pudica. The strong antioxidant activity was shown by B. ciliata with an IC50 value of 125.86 ± 4.16 μg/mL. The ethyl acetate extract of B. ciliata and M. pudica showed higher α-amylase inhibitory activity with an IC50 value of 13.97 ± 0.10 and 11.97 ± 0.36 μg/mL, respectively. The biological potential of the reported phytochemicals was also assessed by using bioinformatic tools. Furthermore, the active phytochemicals from these plants were docked with human pancreatic α-amylase to study their inhibitory activities to this enzyme. The docking analysis revealed that catechin has lower binding energy (−8.6 kcal/mol) as compared to the commercial drug acarbose (−7.3 kcal/mol) indicating higher affinity towards the enzyme. This study additionally sheds more light on medicinal plants’ antidiabetic activity. So, this study will aid in the investigation of the biological properties of these plants as well as the identification of potential compounds with antidiabetic properties.

Insights into the mapping of green synthesis conditions for ZnO nanoparticles and their toxicokinetics

Research on ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) has broad medical applications. However, the green synthesis of ZnO NPs involves a wide range of properties requiring optimization. ZnO NPs show toxicity at lower doses. This toxicity is a function of NP properties and pharmacokinetics. Moreover, NP toxicity and pharmacokinetics are affected by the species type and age of the animals tested. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling offers a mechanistic platform to scrutinize the colligative effect of the interplay between these factors, which reduces the need for in vivo studies. This review provides a guide to choosing green synthesis conditions that result in minimal toxicity using a mechanistic tool, namely PBPK modeling.

Bioprospecting the Metabolome of Plant Urtica dioica L.: A Fast Dereplication and Annotation Workflow in Plant Metabolomics

Plants have a pivotal role in ethnopharmacology, and their preparations are in use globally. However, getting down to the structure requires an effective workflow and mostly requires a time-consuming isolation process. Although bioassay-guided approaches are widely popular, they face a massive problem of rediscovery in recent times, especially in plant metabolomics. Mass spectrometry (MS)-based approach incorporated molecular networking via Global Natural Product Social Molecular Networking (GNPS) is considered here for the benefit of the fast screening of secondary metabolites. This study uses direct crude extracts obtained from various parts of the Urtica dioica plant for the characterization of secondary metabolites. The crude extract of the plant initially displayed promising antioxidant and anti-diabetic activities. Then, we employed mass spectrometry-based dereplication to identify the phytochemical components in the extracts. This led to the discovery of 7 unknown and 17 known secondary metabolites, which were further verified with the SIRIUS 4 platform, a computational tool for the annotation of compounds using tandem MS data. On the other hand, chasing the antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of U. dioica leaves, we employed a bioassay-guided isolation approach. With this method, we isolated and characterized compound 13, a known molecule, which possessed strong antioxidant activity without showing much toxicity in the brine shrimp lethality test at the test concentration of 1 mg/mL. With our results, we advocate the MS-based approach as a good starting point for the dereplication of compounds from the complex crude extracts of plants.

Distribution of Therapeutic Efficacy of Ranunculales Plants Used by Ethnic Minorities on the Phylogenetic Tree of Chinese Species

The medicinal properties of plants can be evolutionarily predicted by phylogeny-based methods, which, however, have not been used to explore the regularity of therapeutic effects of Chinese plants utilized by ethnic minorities. This study aims at exploring the distribution law of therapeutic efficacy of Ranunculales plants on the phylogenetic tree of Chinese species. We collected therapeutic efficacy data of 551 ethnomedicinal species belonging to five species-rich families of Ranunculales; these therapeutic data were divided into 15 categories according to the impacted tissues and organs. The phylogenetic tree of angiosperm species was used to analyze the phylogenetic signals of ethnomedicinal plants by calculating the net relatedness index (NRI) and nearest taxon index (NTI) in R language. The NRI results revealed a clustered structure for eight medicinal categories (poisoning/intoxication, circulatory, gastrointestinal, eyesight, oral, pediatric, skin, and urinary disorders) and overdispersion for the remaining seven (neurological, general, hepatobiliary, musculoskeletal, otolaryngologic, reproductive, and respiratory disorders), while the NTI metric identified the clustered structure for all. Statistically, NRI and NTI values were significant in 5 and 11 categories, respectively. It was found that Mahonia eurybracteata has therapeutic effects on all categories. iTOL was used to visualize the distribution of treatment efficacy on species phylogenetic trees. By figuring out the distribution of therapeutic effects of Ranunculales medicinal plants, the importance of phylogenetic methods in finding potential medicinal resources is highlighted; NRI, NTI, and similar indices can be calculated to help find taxonomic groups with medicinal efficacy based on the phylogenetic tree of flora in different geographic regions.

Temporal assessment of the medicinal plants trade in public markets of the state of Paraíba, northeastern Brazil

BACKGROUND

Open and public markets are the main providers of medicinal plants in urban environments. The present study evaluated the medicinal plants sold in public markets in different municipalities in the mesoregions of the state of Paraíba, northeast of Brazil, and the possible variations in the supply of these plants in the markets over the course of a year.

METHODS

Interviews with medicinal plant traders were conducted in four mesoregions of different climatic and phytophysiognomic characteristics (ranging from Caatinga to Atlantic Forest). The versatility of the species sold was elucidated using the relative importance (RI) index, and the set of species sold by each informant in each mesoregion was compared with each other by one-way Anosim  and by the analysis of main coordinates.

RESULTS

Thirty-five plant traders identified 163 medicinal plant species (151 genders and 76 families) and more 17 non identified species. The most frequent families were Fabaceae (19 species), Asteraceae (12), Lamiaceae (11), and Myrtaceae (6). Punica granatum, Zingiber officinale, and Myracrodruon urundeuva were the species with the highest RI. The analysis of similarity showed distinct differences between the Sertão and all other mesoregions. The Agreste, an ecotone area, was also the area where more species of other regions was found. The absence of 88 species in at least one of the trading locations at some stage of the fieldwork was recorded.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence and absence of the commercialized species do not seem to be related to the period of the year or the mesoregion. There were differences in the inventory of plants commercialized in markets in recent years. We identified an intermediate zone of knowledge and use of species commercialized between the studied localities.

Constraints to Cultivation of Medicinal Plants by Smallholder Farmers in South Africa

Growing demand for therapeutic products from indigenous medicinal plants has led to increased interest in its cultivation, which presents a viable option for improving smallholder farmers’ livelihoods, as well as sustaining the availability of these resources for future generations. Serious bottlenecks however exist for subsistent farmers in the cultivation of these valuable plants. It was pertinent to probe whether the cultivation of medicinal plants provides feasible solutions to rural poverty, while effectively conserving threatened indigenous biodiversity. The paper employed a comprehensive review of existing literature to explore issues constraining smallholder farmers from involvement in a potentially lucrative plant value chain. Findings indicate challenges such as inadequate domestication of valuable plants species, continued over-harvesting from wild populations, poor knowledge of required agronomic practices, low efficacy perception regarding derivatives from cultivated plants, among others. These constraints occur alongside the conservation-oriented strategy driven by international conservation agencies and wholly adopted by the South African government. Recommendations to improve smallholder involvement in the cultivation of medicinal plants include support to research and extension, targeted inducement to smallholders, contracting and off-take agreements, aimed at promoting an alternative poverty-alleviation-focused economic development strategy. The review adds to the conceptual discourse related to plant diversity, resource conservation, poverty alleviation, and economic development

Use of medicinal plants for headache, and their potential implication in medication-overuse headache: Evidence from a population-based study in Nepal

Background

In Nepal, traditional treatment using medicinal plants is popular. Whereas medication-overuse headache is, by definition, caused by excessive use of acute headache medication, we hypothesized that medicinal plants, being pharmacologically active, were as likely a cause.

Methods

We used data from a cross-sectional, nationwide population-based study, which enquired into headache and use of medicinal plants and allopathic medications. We searched the literature for pharmacodynamic actions of the medicinal plants.

Results

Of 2100 participants, 1794 (85.4%) reported headache in the preceding year; 161 (7.7%) reported headache on ≥15 days/month, of whom 28 (17.4%) had used medicinal plants and 117 (72.7%) allopathic medication(s). Of 46 with probable medication-overuse headache, 87.0% (40/46) were using allopathic medication(s) and 13.0% (6/46) medicinal plants, a ratio of 6.7:1, higher than the overall ratio among those with headache of 4.9:1 (912/185). Of 60 plant species identified, 49 were pharmacodynamically active on the central nervous system, with various effects of likely relevance in medication-overuse headache causation.

Conclusions

MPs are potentially a cause of medication-overuse headache, and not to be seen as innocent in this regard. Numbers presumptively affected in Nepal are low but not negligible. This pioneering project provides a starting point for further research to provide needed guidance on use of medicinal plants for headache.

Phytochemical investigation, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and antinociceptive activities of Zanthoxylum armatum DC extracts-in vivo and in vitro experiments

Zanthoxylum armatum (ZA) a commonly used medicinal plant was investigated for phytochemical, anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects. Extract and total alkaloids from fruit and leaves significantly (p < 0.001) reduced the rectal temperature in mice. The effects of bark and root extracts were less significant. In writhing and tail flick methods both the extract and total alkaloids from fruit showed significant (p < 0.05 and p < 0.001) antinociceptive activity. The fruit extract and crude alkaloids showed significant (p < 0.01) lowering of inflammation of paw edema in mice. Crude alkaloids from fruit and leaves showed significant enzyme inhibition with lower IC₅₀ values for 15 and 69 against COX and 21 and 62 μg/ml against LOX. This study rationalize the usage of this spice in traditional medicine for management of pain and inflammation involving LOX and COX inhibition as possible mechanism. GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of various constituents which might contributed towards the pain and inflammation alleviation.

Ethnomedicinal uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Aspects of the Genus Berberis Linn: A Comprehensive Review

BACKGROUND

Genus Berberis (family Berberidaceae), which contains about 650 species and 17 genera worldwide, has been used in folklore and various traditional medicine systems. Berberis Linn. is the most established group among genera with around 450-500 species across the world. This comprehensive review will not only help researchers for further evaluation but also provide substantial information for future exploitation of species to develop novel herbal formulations.

OBJECTIVE

The present review is focussed to summarize and collect the updated review of information of Berberis species reported to date regarding their ethnomedicinal information, chemical constituents, traditional/folklore use, and reported pharmacological activities on more than 40 species of Berberis.

CONCLUSION

A comprehensive survey of the literature reveals that various species of the genus possess various phytoconstituents mainly alkaloids, flavonoid based compounds isolated from different parts of a plant with a wide range of pharmacological activities. So far, many pharmacological activities like anti-cancer, anti-hyperlipidemic, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, antiinflammatory both in vitro and in vivo and clinical study of different extracts/isolated compounds of different species of Berberis have been reported, proving their importance as a medicinal plant and claiming their traditional use.

Plant-Based Sustainable Development—The Expansion and Anatomy of the Medicinal Plant Secondary Processing Sector in Nepal

There is an increasing global demand for medicinal plants. Nevertheless, the nature and scale of processing in national-level medicinal plant production networks, and how this can contribute to sustainable development, are poorly understood. This study (i) uncovers and explains the emergence of the Nepalese medicinal plant secondary processing sector, (ii) characterises the enterprises and identify the obstacles they face, (iii) quantifies the volumes and values of processed species and end markets, and (iv) discusses the potential to contribute to sustainable economic development. Empirical data were generated from key informant interviews and qualitative (n = 13) and quantitative (n = 79) semi-structured surveys of medicinal plant processing enterprises. In 2014–15, the sector purchased 3679 metric tonnes of air-dry raw materials (across 67 products) for USD 4.0 million, producing 494 tonnes of end-products valued at USD 11.2 million. The sector is characterised by small enterprises. Rising domestic demand drove the increase in the number of enterprises. Key business obstacles were export barriers, low access to technology, infrastructure and service barriers, labour challenges, socio-economic and political instability, and the inefficient bureaucracy. The actions required to change from being a supplier of raw materials and producer of lower-value domestic consumer products to integrating into the global economy as an exporter of higher-value products that are sustainably sourced are discussed.

The governance of traditional medicine and herbal remedies in the selected local markets of Western Kenya

BACKGROUND

A lot of emphasis is often placed on modern governance systems and little or no attention is given to traditional governance practices which remain largely undocumented. The study aimed at finding out important traditional and modern governance practices that regulate traditional medicine sector in Western Kenya.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was carried out in selected market centres of Western Kenya where the identified traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs) sell their traditional medicine. All consenting TMPs and professional experts were interviewed with the aid of a semi-structured questionnaire. Purposive sampling design with elements of snowball techniques was employed in tracing competent traditional medicine (TM) experts and relevant professional experts. The data collected was processed in Microsoft Excel and descriptive statistics performed. Pearson's chi-square statistics was carried out to determine the significance of the traditional and modern governance data sets using the STATA software.

RESULTS

Modern governance practices were not significantly different in all the market centres surveyed (p = 0.080). Equally, the traditional governance practices were also not significantly different in all the selected market centres (p = 1.000).

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional governance practices play an important role in the governance of traditional medicine and are shaped by the socio-cultural beliefs of the local communities. Modern governance practices, on the other hand, are widely perceived as top downregulation of the traditional medicine growing industry.

Indigenous uses of wild and tended plant biodiversity maintain ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes of the Terai Plains of Nepal

BACKGROUND

Despite a rapidly accumulating evidence base quantifying ecosystem services, the role of biodiversity in the maintenance of ecosystem services in shared human-nature environments is still understudied, as is how indigenous and agriculturally dependent communities perceive, use, and manage biodiversity. The present study aims to document traditional ethnobotanical knowledge of the ecosystem service benefits derived from wild and tended plants in rice-cultivated agroecosystems, compare this to botanical surveys, and analyze the extent to which ecosystem services contribute social-ecological resilience in the Terai Plains of Nepal.

METHOD

Sampling was carried out in four landscapes, 22 Village District Committees, and 40 wards in the monsoon season. Data collection was based on transects walks to collect plant specimens, structured and semi-structured interviews, and participatory fieldwork in and around home gardens, farms, and production landscapes. We asked 180 farmers to free-list vernacular names and describe use-value of wild and tended plants in rice-cultivated agroecosystems. Uses were categorized into eight broad groupings, and 61 biomedical ailment classifications. We assessed if knowledge of plant species diversity and abundance differed with regard to caste, age, and gender.

RESULTS

Nepalese farmers have a deep knowledge of the use and management of the 391 vascular plant specimens identified, which provide key provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services. Altogether, plants belong to 76 distinct plant species from 49 phylogenetic families: 56 are used to cure 61 ailments, 27 for rituals, 25 for food, 20 for timber, 17 for fuel, 17 for fodder, 11 for soil enhancement, and eight for pesticides. Four caste groups have statistically different knowledge, and younger informants report a lower average number of useful plants.

CONCLUSION

Agricultural landscapes in Nepal are reservoirs of biodiversity. The knowledge of the use of wild and tended plant species in and around these farms differs by the caste and age group of land manager. Conducting research on agroecosystems will contribute to a deeper understanding of how nature is perceived by locals, to more efficient management and conservation of the breadbasket of Nepal, and to the conservation of valuable, but disappearing traditional knowledge and practice.

Ethnomedicinal knowledge of a marginal hill community of Central Himalaya: diversity, usage pattern, and conservation concerns

BACKGROUND

Indigenous communities use wild plants to cure human ailments since ancient times; such knowledge has significant potential for formulating new drugs and administering future health care. Considering this, the present study was undertaken to assess use value, diversity, and conservation concerns of medicinal plants used in traditional herbal care system of a marginal hill community in Bageshwar district of Uttarakhand in the Central Himalayan region of India.

METHODOLOGY

Extensive surveys were made in 73 villages to gather information on the ethnomedicinal use of plant species used in the traditional herbal healing system. A total of 100 respondents were identified (30 herbal healers called Vaidyas and 70 non-healers/natives) and interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires, target interviews, and group discussion. Some important indices such as the use-value index (UV), relative frequency citation (RFC), cultural importance index (CI), and informant consensus factor (F_ic) were calculated for the medicinal plants included in the present study.

RESULT

It was recorded that the community uses a total of 70 species with 64 genera and 35 families for curing various ailments. Family Lamiaceae recorded the maximum number of medicinal plants. Twenty-one species used most extensively in the traditional health care system. The major parts of the identified plants used for the treatment of various ailments were root/rhizome and leaf. The most common methods used for the preparation of these plants were decoction and infusion. Ocimum basilicum L., Cannabis sativa L., Citrus aurantifolia (Christm) Sw., Curcuma longa L., and Setaria italica L. had the highest rate of use report. RFC value ranged between 0.03 and 0.91 with highest values for Setaria italica, Zingiber officinale, Ocimum basilicum, and Raphanus sativus. The traditional knowledge is passed verbally to generations and needs to be preserved for the future bio-prospecting of plants that could be a potential cure to any future disease.

CONCLUSION

In recent years, the community has access to modern hospitals and medicinal facilities, although a considerable number still prefer medicinal plants for curing select ailments. It is suggested that these ethnomedicinal species need to be screened and evaluated further for their effectiveness for pharmacological activity. Also, significant efforts are required to conserve traditional knowledge and natural habitats of wild medicinal plants.

Optimisation of phytochemical characteristics and antioxidative properties of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. seeds and Ocimum basilicum L. leaves superfine powders using new parting process

INTRODUCTION

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) are two aromatic medicinal plants. Recently, a new parting process which is named CDS "Comminution and to control Diffraction Sieving" is taken into consideration and its positive effect on the extraction of bioactive compounds from the plants, without any solvent, is reported.

OBJECTIVE

Study the effect of CDS on phytochemical properties of superfine powders of fennel seeds and basil leaves.

METHODS

Fennel seeds and basil leaves superfine powders were fractionated as follows: 100-180 μm, 180-315 μm, 315-500 μm, > 500 μm and unsieved superfine powders. Extraction of polyphenols was carried out using hydromethanolic maceration. The essential oils were extracted by maceration with dichloromethane. The antioxidant activities were evaluated by DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) assay. Using liquid chromatography ultraviolet electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (LC-UV-ESI-MS), concentrations of characterised phenolic compounds were measured. The essential oils compositions were characterised using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

RESULTS

In fennel seeds, the 100-180 μm fraction had maximum antioxidant activity and LC-UV-ESI-MS analyses proved that the best extraction of certain polyphenols was obtained in the 100-180 μm fraction. In basil leaves, the best antioxidant activity corresponded to the 315-500 μm fraction and LC-UV-ESI-MS analyses showed that the polyphenols were concentrated in the < 315 μm fractions. For both plants, GC-MS presented that the essential oils were concentrated in the 315-500 μm fraction.

CONCLUSION

CDS as a new green parting process leads to improve the phytochemical properties of these two superfine plant powders in the specific granulometric classes.

Phytochemical screening, metal concentration determination, antioxidant activity, and antibacterial evaluation of Drymaria diandra plant

Background

Several phytochemical constitutes possess natural antioxidant activity and are in fact advantageous in reducing many oxidative stress related diseases. Drymaria diandra of Caryophyllaceae family is one such plant which exhibits various medicinal properties. The aim of the current study is to provide detailed exploration of phytochemical constitutes, metal concentration determination, antioxidant, and antibacterial activity of Drymaria diandra.

Results

Qualitative phytochemical analysis showed the presence of maximum number of metabolites in methanol-water (1:1) extract. The heavy and toxic metals such as As, Cd, Cr, and Pb were almost near to the detection limit. The concentration of Fe (19.64 mg/l) was highest followed by Mn (2.35 mg/l). The (IC50) value for methanol extract was found 195.61 which is greater than the standard Ascorbic acid. Antibacterial activity of methanol extract was found higher for Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli with 22-mm and 14-mm sized diameter of zone of inhibition respectively and methanol-water extract for Proteus vulgaris with 17-mm diameter of zone of inhibition.

Conclusion

The findings of the present study showed the presence of various valuable phytochemical constitutes responsible to give antibacterial and antioxidant potency. The presence of bio-metals and the absence of toxic metals further highlight the importance of plant as the source of food that bears medicinal properties.

Asian Medicinal Plants’ Production and Utilization Potentials: A Review

Medicinal plants research in Asia continues to receive significant national and international attention, particularly concerning its multiple roles in poverty alleviation and health care support. However, scientific information on the institutional arrangements, the potentials of different medicinal plants production systems, and the utilization methods, remain highly fragmented. This incomprehensive information base shades the development of a comprehensive research agenda to improve the current body of knowledge, at least in the context of Asia. To address this impasse and propose future research perspectives, we systematically reviewed 247 journal articles, 15 institutional reports, and 28 book chapters. From the reviews, five key lessons are drawn: (i) Asian medicinal plant production systems demonstrate some dynamics, characterized by a gradual but continuous shift from wild gathering to cultivation, (ii) sub-regional variations exist with regards to the appreciation of medicinal plants potentials for traditional healing, modern healthcare and livelihoods support, (iii) knowledge on the effect of multi-scale institutional arrangements (formal and informal) on medicinal plant management practices is fragmented, (iv) very few studies dwell on the challenges of medicinal plants commercialization, particularly with regards to the role of middlemen, boom–bust cycle, raw material readiness, and product quality, and (v) law enforcement, benefit and knowledge sharing, and research and development should be prioritized to serve the interest of medicinal plants production actors. To further extend the body of knowledge on medicinal plants in Asia, we advance the need for empirical investigations on the performance of medicinal plants production systems and their contribution to livelihoods in diverse institutional contexts.

Ethnomedicinal Uses of Plant Resources in the Machhapuchchhre Rural Municipality of Kaski District, Nepal

Background: Medicinal plants are being used by the majority of the population throughout the world for their primary health care needs. The reliance is also prevalent in Nepal, aided by its ethnic and biological diversity. This study aimed to catalogue the ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants used by local people of Machhapuchchhre Rural Municipality of Kaski district. Methods: Data were collected between February 2017 and April 2018 from eight different villages of the Kaski district by using semi-structured interviews, guided field works, focus group discussions, and in-depth interviews. The reported traditional uses were supported by local assistants, cataloguing vernacular names and crosschecking with the earlier published and gray literature. Results: A total of 105 medicinal plants, belonging to 58 families and 99 genera were documented to treat 70 different diseases and ailments. The highest numbers of plants (37) were used for gastrointestinal disorders and the lowest (4) were used for female genital disorders. Commonly used parts were underground portions (28 species) followed by fruits and seeds (25 species each). The most preferred dosage form was juice, used for 50 ailments, and the oral route was the most favored route of administration (77 species). The medicinal properties of 22 plant species were found hitherto unreported in the district. Conclusions: The study area was found to be rich in plant resources and the people have ample knowledge on the use of medicinal plants. Due to a lack of proper documentation, conservation, and cultivation practices, valuable plant species are at risk of extinction. Thus, appropriate conservation measures and scientific assessment of plant-lore in the district is immediately required.

Influence of traditionally used Nepalese plants on wound healing and immunological properties using primary human cells in vitro

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The improvement of wound healing has always been an important issue for both ethnopharmacological and modern medical research. In this study, we used state-of-the-art methods to investigate extracts of plants used traditionally in Nepal for more than 1000 years to treat inflammatory injuries.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We focused on the potential of the plant extracts to ameliorate wound healing and to influence immune modulatory properties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nine Nepalese plant extracts in three different solvents (methanol, ethyl acetate, petroleum ether) were immunologically characterised. Water-soluble tetrazolium (WST-1) assays and scratch assays were performed to determine their impact on viability and wound healing capacity of human keratinocytes and fibroblasts. Effects on proliferation, viability and function of physiologically relevant anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 stimulated primary human T lymphocytes were assessed using carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE), annexin V/propidium iodide staining assays and flow cytometry-based surface receptor characterisation. The secretion level of interleukin-2 (IL-2) was analysed with the ELISA technique. Dendritic cells were generated out of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) by CD14⁺ magnetic bead selection. Flow cytometry-based surface receptor characterisation and ELISA-based technique were used to evaluate the DC activation state and the interleukin-8 (IL-8) secretion level.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that an ethyl acetate extract of Bassia longifolia and of Gmelina arborea have anti-inflammatory capacities, indicated by reduced proliferation, inhibition of IL-2 secretion and degranulation capacity of activated human T cells, when compared with adequate concentrations of synthetic positive drug controls. Furthermore, Gmelina arborea improved the wound healing of keratinocytes and fibroblasts and has tendency to increase the secretion of IL-8 by human primary dendritic cells.

CONCLUSION

With this preliminary screening, we offer a scientific basis for the immunomodulatory properties of the two Nepalese medicinal plants Bassia longifolia and Gmelina arborea. However, further detailed studies regarding the responsible compounds are necessary.

Zanthoxylum armatum DC.: Current knowledge, gaps and opportunities in Nepal

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. possesses several medicinal properties and has been commonly used in different indigenous medicinal practices to cure several diseases because of its stomachic, carminative and anthelmintic properties.

AIM

This review paper aims to provide an update on and analysis of information about the ecology, uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, trade opportunities, policy gaps for the commercialization of this species forming a basis for further scientific innovations MATERIALS AND METHODS: Information was gathered through a search of different books, journals, articles, annual reports, proceedings and web-based materials.

RESULT

Alkaloids, sterols, phenolics, lignins coumarins, terpenoids and flavonoids have been identified from leaves, fruits, stem, bark and seeds. Its trade value is also very high with its manifold applications in Ayurveda, allopathy, general pharmacy, and other industries. Antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, hepato-protective, insecticidal/larvicidal effects are of particular relevance.

CONCLUSION

It is one of the prioritized medicinal plants for economic development in Nepal. Owing to its diverse applications, the species can be developed as an important commodity for alleviation of poverty in rural areas. The various ethno-pharmacological applications of Zanthoxylum armatum have been verified by several related researches. More extensive study on the individual specific phyto-component can lead to novel innovations for the well-being of mankind.

Production from both wild harvest and cultivation: The cross-border Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae) trade

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Swertia chirayita is the most widely traded species in a genus of 150 species, many of which are used in traditional medicine. S. chirayita is used mainly in Ayurvedic and Tibetan systems of medicine and the homoeopathic system of medicine as well as in regional folk medicine. Primarily wild collected, with some cultivation. S. chirayita is traded as a medicinal substance and exported in the forms of dried whole plant or extract of whole plant individually and/or as active ingredients of Ayurvedic medicines. S. chirayita export valuations continue to make S. chirayita one of Nepal's highest foreign exchange earning medicinal plant species.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

The aims of this review were first, to assess the scale of the global trade in S. chirayita, second, to review evidence from plant population biology and from studies on the impacts of wild harvest on S. chirayita populations and cultivation as an alternative source of supply.

METHODS

The taxonomy and trade names for S. chirayita were reviewed, followed by a synthesis of published information on Swertia population biology and studies on impacts of wild S. chirayita harvest from across the geographic range of this species. Data on the prices paid for S. chirayita were then compiled for the period 2001-2017, followed by an analysis of global trade data for S. chirayita.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Based on India import data and assuming an estimate in an earlier study that 60% of Nepal's S. chirayita production goes to India and 35% to Tibet, then Nepal's 2013 annual production was about 711 metric tonnes (MT) of which about 675.6 MT would be exported (India + Tibet). Nepal's 2014 annual production would be an estimated 503.25 MT of which about 478 MT would be exported. Declines in S. chirayita populations have been widely noted across its range. In India, since 2004, a ban was placed on the export of wild harvested S. chirayita by the Government of India, where the Director General of Foreign Trade prohibited export of S. chirayita plants, plant portions and their derivatives and extracts obtained from the wild with the exception of 'formulations'. Cultivation of S. chirayita to meet commercial demand has been an important part of a solution to over-exploitation of wild stocks in eastern Nepal for 25 years, producing significant quantities that enter the export trade to India and Tibet. In Sankhuwasabha district, for example, 53.1 MT of S. chirayita were produced in 2013/014, just over half of which (27 MT) were exported to India, with the remainder exported to Tibet. Based on value-chain analysis and cost-benefit assessments, S. chirayita cultivation has been shown to be profitable in Nepal. However, since the first cost-benefit assessment was done (2013), prices dropped from NRs750/kg in April 2013 to a low of 250 NRs/kg in December 2017). Taking inflation into account further highlights the steep decline in the profitability for local farmers, who have limited options for value-adding. Consequently, farmers prefer to grow more profitable alternative crops, such as Nepal cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.).

Crossing the roof of the world: Trade in medicinal plants from Nepal to China

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Trade in medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) between Nepal and China has taken place for centuries along the Tibetan border. While there is anecdotal evidence that economic development in China over the past decades, coupled with regional infrastructure development and increasing market integration, has substantially changed this trade, there are no current published studies investigating this, e.g. in terms of species and market structure. This knowledge gap impedes the development of public interventions, e.g. in support of sustainable trade.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

The primary objective of this study is to provide the first informative insights into the Nepal-China trade in MAPs, with particular emphasis on the value chain in Tibet.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Data was collected from December 2015 to August 2016 in Nepal and Tibet. The data collection included standardized questionnaires to understand and map the value chain of MAPs, including the actors involved and key governance issues. Data was collected from Katmandu-based MAPs wholesalers exporting from Nepal to China, (n = 6) and with regional wholesalers (n = 40) based in Tibet. The questionnaires contained quantitative and qualitative components focusing on key elements of the MAPs value chain, e.g. the traded species and their values. This was augmented with qualitative interviews with Lhasa-based processors (n = 4) and government officials (n = 12) working in border controls, customs, and/or drug administration. We also collected official statistics on the Nepal-China MAPs trade and conducted a workshop in Lhasa with traders and government officials to discuss the nature of the Nepal-China MAPs trade.

RESULTS

The Nepal-China MAPs trade boomed after 2011 when the value of traded plants increased more than nine-fold. This rapid increase reflected both a broader species composition and higher unit prices in response to increasing demand from China. The trade expansion was also driven by increasing demand in China and facilitated by improved infrastructure in Nepal and Tibet, including direct flight connections for the transport of high-value products. Official records on both sides of the border under-document both the value and the volume of the trade, implying that much of it is extra-legal. The value chain is thus governed by both legal and extra-legal mechanisms.

CONCLUSION

This study provides the first structured overview of the current trade in commercial MAPs from Nepal to China. While the trade is thriving, growing in both volume and value to the benefit of producers in Nepal and consumers in China, there is little empirical data or research to support policy formulation on sustainable trading. This study provides informative insights into the value chain and makes public policy recommendations to increase the transparency and sustainability of trade by improving traditional border markets and removing market barriers.

Demand, End-Uses, and Conservation of Alpine Medicinal Plant Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong in Central Himalaya

Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong of Scrophulariaceae family (hereinafter referred to as Neopicrorhiza) has medicinally important rhizomes with high levels of trade. What factors drive demand for Neopicrorhiza in Central Himalaya is unknown. In this context, a nationwide comprehensive survey was conducted from September 2016 to March 2017 to assess demand, end-uses, and conservation of dry Neopicrorhiza rhizomes in Nepal. A total of 2313 herbal products were surveyed for Neopicrorhiza as an ingredient in 38 retailer shops. Processing industries of Neopicrorhiza in Nepal were interviewed using structured questionnaire. There were 23 herbal industries manufacturing 45 types of ayurvedic medicines as end-products containing Neopicrorhiza. The volume and value of annual demand for dry rhizomes of Neopicrorhiza in Nepal were found as 6076 kg and NRs 8573236 (USD 83235.30), respectively, in 2015/016 with average 264.17 kg/industry and NRs 1410.87 (USD 13.69) per kg. The major uses of ayurvedic medicines containing Neopicrorhiza were to treat a number of disease categories: cardiovascular system/liver (17), cardiovascular system/blood (6), nervous system (6), dermatological system (4), musculoskeletal system (3), digestive system (2), respiratory system (2), genitourinal system (4), and others (1). Despite changing legal regulation, trade and consumption of Neopicrorhiza exist in Nepal. It can be concluded that domestic consumption is not the major cause of resource depletion of Neopicrorhiza in Nepal.

Cross-cultural comparison of plant use knowledge in Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya

BACKGROUND

This study seeks to better understand the human-nature interface and to measure the variability of plant use knowledge among cultures, through inter- and intracultural analyses. We compared plant collection, use, and management of two culturally distinct groups (Baitadi and Darchula) of the Nepal Himalaya. They inhabit different physiographic regions, yet share the same ecological landscape, environmental resources, and livelihood challenges. We hypothesized that the elderly, native, and traditional healers living in remote and rural places possess more diverse and detailed knowledge of plant use and conservation than young, non-native, and non-healers.

METHODS

A total of 106 people were contacted for interviews, and 100 (68 men and 32 women) agreed to share ethnobotanical, demographic, and socioeconomic information. They were asked about the three most important plants for their socioeconomic benefit, culture, primary health care, and livelihood.

RESULTS

The knowledge of plant collection, use, and its transfer was strongly associated with the cultural heritage whereas the ecogeographical condition influences the ways in which plants are collected and used. The divergent knowledge of plant collection, use, and transfer between the participants of Baitadi and Darchula was significantly (p < 0.001) attributed to the cultural heritage of the area. The low consensus of plant use (FiC 0-0.87; IASc 0-0.67) between Baitadi and Darchula district could be due to cultural divergence, varied accessibility, physiographic heterogeneity, and biodiversity uniqueness.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in plant use knowledge may help in diversifying the strategies of plant use in accordance with the livelihood, culture, and environment, and therefore, more studies measuring these aspects can further the ecosystem and cultural health of the region.

Factors Contributing to the Decline of Traditional Practices in Communities from the Gwallek-Kedar area, Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal

Traditional knowledge and practices are increasingly recognized in the resource conservation and management practices, however are declining in many parts of the world including Nepal. Studies on the inventory of traditional knowledge are available, albeit limited, and empirical analysis of factors contributing to the decline of traditional knowledge are negligible in Nepal. We thus initiated this study in the Nepal part of the Kailash Sacred Landscape to (i) document traditional knowledge and practices on agriculture, forest-based herbal remedy, and genetic resource conservation; and (ii) identify factors contributing to the decline of traditional practices in the communities. Data was collected during September-December 2015 through key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and households survey. The household survey data was used in binary logistic regression analysis to identify factors contributing to the decline of six key traditional practices. The study documented 56 types of traditional practices. The regressions showed that the age of the respondent, distance to the nearest forest, distance to the nearest motorable road, family members' ill health, and seasonal migration of the household members for jobs significantly influencing to the decline of the particular traditional practices, however, their effects vary within a practice and among the practices. The use of modern medicine, increasing road linkages, decreasing trend of plant resource availability, and agriculture intensification are responsible for the decline of the particular traditional practices. We recommend to recognize their significance in the governing socio-ecological systems and to link the traditional and scientific knowledge systems through policy formulations.

Bergenia ciliata: A comprehensive review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and safety

Bergenia ciliata is a medicinal plant used for the treatment of kidney stones. The presented review is the first attempt to gather utmost information about the distribution, ethno-medicines, phytochemical analysis, pharmacology and toxicology of B. ciliata. This review was designed with the aim to compile fragmented information about B. ciliata in addition to explore its therapeutic potential and future research opportunities. A total of 185 research papers were reviewed using several data sources such as; Web of Science, Scopus, Google scholar, Science direct and PubMed. Results of this review revealed that B. ciliata is being used to cure 104 different types of ailments. Although among reported disorders B. ciliata showed high potential in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders but it is well known for the treatment of kidney disorders particularly kidney stones. Literature review showed that traditional healers mostly utilize it in powder form. Moreover, B. ciliata was reported to possess high antifungal, antiviral, anti plasmodial and antibacterial activities. Pharmacological studies reported that it has good antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tussive, anti-ulcer and anti-neoplastic activities. Variety of secondary metabolites belonging to different classes of compounds such as phenols, alcohols, terpenoids and fatty acid were reportedly isolated from B. ciliata. In spite of having better efficiency of ethno medicines and good pharmacological potential, B. ciliata has also shown toxic effects on living system in several studies. We invite the attention of researchers to carry out detailed ethno-pharmacological and toxicological studies on this valuable plant species in order to provide reliable knowledge to the patients and discover more novel compounds for the development of new drugs with fewer side effects on the living system as compare to modern medicines.

Documentation of Herbal Medicines Used for the Treatment and Management of Human Diseases by Some Communities in Southern Ghana

Traditional medicine is an important component of the health care system of most developing countries. However, indigenous knowledge about herbal medicines of many Ghanaian cultures has not yet been investigated. The aim of the present study was to document herbal medicines used by traditional healers to treat and manage human diseases and ailments by some communities living in Ghana. The study was conducted in eight communities in southern Ghana. Data were collected from 45 healers using ethnobotanical questionnaire and voucher specimens were collected. A total of 52 species of plants belonging to 28 plant families were reportedly used for treatment and management of 42 diseases and ailments. Medicinal plants were commonly harvested from the wild and degraded lowland areas in the morning from loamy soil. Herbal medicines were prepared in the form of decoctions (67%) and infusions (33%). Oral administration of the herbals was most (77%) common route of administration whereas the least used routes were nasal (1%) and rectal (2%). The results of the study show that herbal medicines are used for treatment and management of both common and specialized human diseases and that factors of place and time are considered important during harvesting of plants for treatments.

Land-Use and Socioeconomic Change, Medicinal Plant Selection and Biodiversity Resilience in Far Western Nepal

Indigenous plant use-systems have evolved under, and constantly adapted to human and non-human impacts. In the last decades however, increasing socioeconomic and cultural transformations, including land-use change, outmigration, globalized markets, the introduction of new species, and climate change have led to a decreasing availability of indigenous resources, and are ultimately leading to a reduction of local use-knowledge. Participant observations, discussions, walks-in-the-woods, semi-structured interviews and informal meetings were carried out in 12 villages of far western Nepal between 2011 and 2015 to assess how sociocultural changes have affected the sustenance of indigenous systems and local biodiversity, when compared to studies carried out in the previous decades. Our findings show that there were no statistically significant differences in subject variable means, but differences were relatively important to plant parts-use and plant growth-forms (p = 0.183 and 0.088 respectively). Cissampelos pareira, Acorus calamus, Calotropis gigantea were found to have the greatest relative importance, whereas Ageratina adenophora, Melia azedarach, Carum carvi were most important based on use values. Among them, C. pareira and A. adenophora were introduced. The spatial distribution of species collected for medicine showed that all habitats were important for collection however, habitats close to villages were more favored. The use of non-indigenous and easily available species and more accessible habitats is becoming more prevalent as primary forests become increasingly overexploited, indigenous species become limited, and sociocultural cause of land use change expand. The utilization of indigenous and non-indigenous species and nearby habitats, although possibly affecting the quality of medicinal species, nonetheless reveals the dynamism of indigenous medicines as an adaptive asset mitigating human and non-human environmental changes.

Effect of root-extracts of Ficus benghalensis (Banyan) in memory, anxiety, muscle co-ordination and seizure in animal models

Background

Ficus benghalensis L. (Banyan) is a commonly found tree in Eastern Nepal. Its different plant parts are used for various neurological ailments. This study was performed in mice to see its effects in various neuropharmacological parameters.

Methods

Passive-avoidance (memory), Open-field (anxiety), Pentobarbital-induced Sleep potentiation (sleep), Rota-rod (muscle-co-ordination), Pentylenetetrazol-Induced and Maximal Electroshock Seizure Tests were performed. Sample size was calculated using G*Power 3.1.9.2. Aqueous root extracts (Soxhlet method) of Ficus benghalensis 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg with negative and positive controls were used. The experimental results were represented as Mean ± SD. P-value was set at <0.05. Oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) or Mann-Whitney U test was appropriately used.

Results

Passive-avoidance test showed 200 mg/kg group spent significantly less. Time (0.00s + 0.00s) in shock-zone than Normal Saline-group (9.67 s + 14.36 s, P = 0.000) or Diazepam-group (41.07 s + 88.24 s, P = 0.000).

Open-field test showed 200 mg/kg group spent significantly longer Time (24.77 s + 12.23 s) in central-square than either Normal Saline group (15.08 s + 6.81 s, P = 0.000) or Diazepam-group (15.32 s + 5.12 s, P = 0.000).

In Rota-rod test, 200 mg/kg group fell off the rod significantly (P = 0.000) earlier (33.01 s + 43.61 s) than both Normal Saline (>120 s) and Diazepam (62.07 s + 43.83 s) PTZ model showed that 100 mg/kg significantly (P = 0.004) delayed seizure-onset (184.40s + 36.36 s) compared to Normal Saline (101.79 s + 22.81 s), however, in MES model 200 mg/kg significantly (P = 0.000) prolonged tonic hind-limb extension (17.57 s + 2.15 s) compared to Normal Saline (13.55 s + 2.75 s) or Phenytoin (00.00s + 00.00s).

Conclusion

Aerial roots of Ficus benghalensis have memory-enhancing, anxiolytic, musclerelaxant, and seizure-modifying effect.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12906-016-1413-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

In vitro antileishmanial and antimalarial activity of selected plants of Nepal

Background:

Nepal is very rich in biodiversity, and no extensive effort has yet been carried out to screen plants that are used by traditional healers against parasitic diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro antileishmanial and antimalarial activity of crude methanolic or ethanolic extracts of 29 plant species that are currently used by local people of Nepal for treating different ailments.

Methods:

Crude extracts of leaves, twigs, aerial parts, and/or roots of the selected plants were evaluated for in vitro inhibitory activity against intracellular amastigotes of Leishmania infantum and against erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. To determine the selectivity index (SI), cytotoxicity was assessed on MRC-5 cells in parallel.

Results:

Three plant species, namely Phragmites vallatoria and Ampelocissus tomentosa, for which no antiprotozoal activity has previously been reported, and Terminalia chebula revealed antiprotozoal activity. The extract of A. tomentosa exhibited moderate activity against L. infantum with an inhibitory concentration 50% (IC₅₀) of 13.2 ± 4.3 µg/ml and SI >3, while T. chebula exhibited fairly good antiplasmodial activity with IC₅₀ values of 4.5 ± 2.4 µg/ml and SI values >5.

Conclusion:

In countries like Nepal, where the current health system is unable to combat the burden of endemic parasitic diseases, evaluation of local plants as a potential source of the drug can help in expanding the treatment options. The extent of untapped resources available in these countries provides an opportunity for future bioprospecting.

An ethnobotanical analysis of parasitic plants (Parijibi) in the Nepal Himalaya

BACKGROUND

Indigenous biocultural knowledge is a vital part of Nepalese environmental management strategies; however, much of it may soon be lost given Nepal's rapidly changing socio-ecological climate. This is particularly true for knowledge surrounding parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plant species, which are well represented throughout the Central-Eastern Himalayas but lack a collated record. Our study addresses this disparity by analyzing parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plant species diversity in Nepal as well as the ethnobotanical knowledge that surrounds them.

METHODS

Botanical texts, online databases, and herbarium records were reviewed to create an authoritative compendium of parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plant species native or naturalized to the Nepal Central-Eastern Himalaya. Semi-structured interviews were then conducted with 141 informants to better understand the biocultural context of these species, emphasizing ethnobotanical uses, in 12 districts of Central-Eastern Nepal.

RESULTS

Nepal is a hotspot of botanical diversity, housing 15 families and 29 genera of plants that exhibit parasitic or mycoheterotrophic habit. Over 150 of the known 4500 parasitic plant species (~3 %) and 28 of the 160 mycoheterotrophic species (~18 %) are native or naturalized to Nepal; 13 of our surveyed parasitic species are endemic. Of all species documented, approximately 17 % of parasitic and 7 % of mycoheterotrophic plants have ethnobotanical uses as medicine (41 %), fodder (23 %), food (17 %), ritual objects (11 %), or material (8 %).

CONCLUSIONS

Parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plant species exhibit high diversity in the Nepal Central-Eastern Himalaya and are the fodder for biocultural relationships that may help inform future environmental management projects in the region.

Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Inspite of tremendous advances made in allopathic medicine, herbal practice still plays an important role in management and curing various ailments in remote and rural areas of India. However, traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants is eroding day by day and there is a need to document such knowledge, before it is lost forever. The aim of the present study was to document the indigenous and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used by local inhabitants in and around Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Indian Himalaya for the advancement of biomedical research and development.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The intensive field survey was carried out at three different altitudes of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS) and its adjoining areas. The inhabitants were interviewed about the local name of plants having ethno-medicinal values, plant parts used, mode of processing/application and preparation and dosage through discussions and semi structured questionnaires.

RESULTS

A total of 97 medicinal plant species belonging to 52 families and 83 genera were reported for curing various ailments like fever, cough, cold, digestive disorders, constipation, menstrual disorders etc. Out of 97 plant species reported, 21 are rare or threatened. Literature review revealed that 11 out of the 97 plant species are reported with new therapeutic uses. The most frequently utilized plant part was the root/rhizome (33%) followed by leaf (27%). In some cases whole plant was utilized. A few medicinal plants had some veterinary uses also.

CONCLUSION

The study provides comprehensive information about the eroding indigenous and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used by local inhabitants in a part of Western Himalaya, India. The identification of the active ingredients of the plants used by the local people may provide some useful leads for the development of new drugs and such new approaches of traditional knowledge regarding medicinal plants and laboratory analysis might help pharmaceutical industry in new chapters for the wellbeing of mankind.

Bergenin Content and Free Radical Scavenging Activity of Bergenia Extracts

Our research was focused on the evaluation of bergenin content and free radical scavenging activity of extracts prepared from three different species of Bergenia - B. crassifolia (L.) Fritsch., B. ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. and B. x ornata Stein. collected during different seasons. Using an HPLC method, the highest total amount of bergenin was revealed in the leaves of B. x ornata and B. crassifolia (4.9 - 5.1 mg.g−1). Free radical scavenging power was determined by two methods - FRAP and NADH. The best free radical scavengers were B. crassifolia (FRAP: 6.7 - 15.9 mg GAE.100g−1; NADH: 20.3 - 50.9%) and B. ornata (FRAP: 13.7 - 15.2 mg GAE.100g−1; NADH: 29.3 - 31.1%). The lowest content of bergenin and the weakest radical scavenger was B. ciliata (bergenin: 3.1 mg.g−1; FRAP: 5.5 - 11.0 mg GAE.100g−1; NADH: 23.2 - 25.6%). The presence of a large percentage of bergenin is responsible for the radical scavenging activity, as shown by the results from the FRAP and NADH assays. Significant, positive correlation was found between bergenin content and radical scavenging activity in both methods.

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Nepal, a mountainous country having diversified topographic and climatic conditions, gives rise to a wide range of flora and fauna. In villages ethnic people, including Magar and Majhi highly depend on medicinal plants for their primary healthcare. Due to overexploitation, encroachment in forest for arable land and destruction of natural habitat, potentially useful medicinal plants are going to be threatened in their natural environment. There is a strong need to enlist highly valuable medicinal plants and use traditional knowledge to protect, utilize and manage them in ex-situ and in-situ conservation. The present research investigates and documents traditional knowledge on medicinal plants utilization as natural medicine by two ethnic communities Magar and Majhi of Parbat district in Western Nepal.

METHODS

Ethnomedicinal data was collected during 2012-2013 by the following standard ethnobotanical methods. Data about medicinal uses of herbs, shrubs and trees were collected using semi-structured questionnaire, field observation, personal interview and group discussion with 334 (130 men and 204 women) pre-identified local informants, among which 13 male and 2 female were local healers. Statistical tool, informant consensus factors (F(IC)) and fidelity level (FL) values were used to analyze the importance of ethnomedicinal plants.

RESULTS

A total of 132 ethnomedicinal plant species belonging to 99 genera and 67 families have been documented. These plants are used to treat various diseases and disorders grouped under 12 disease categories, with the highest number of species (61) being used for gastro-intestinal, parasitic and hepatobiliary disorders (FIC=0.78%), followed by blood and lymphatic system (F(IC)=0.76%) category. The highest fidelity level (FL) values recorded in Paris polyphylla (FL=96.0%) followed by Bergenia ciliata (FL=95.0%) confirms that these plants are the best plant species with medicinal properties.

CONCLUSIONS

The two ethnic communities, Magar and Majhi, in Parbat district are rich in ethnomedicinal knowledge. The high degree of consensus among the informants suggests that current use and knowledge are still strong, and thus the preservation of indigenous knowledge would show good foresight in acting before much has been lost.

Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in farwest Nepal

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Indigenous medicinal systems have evolved after the shock of original contact of traditional healers with the indigenous traditions because decreasing availability of indigenous medicinal plants and assimilation of new species are increasingly occurred.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we appraised the distribution and usage of indigenous and non-indigenous botanicals and their habitats and their uses in indigenous medicines of farwest Nepal following literature and herbarium specimens review, participatory field visits and ethnobotanical surveys.

RESULTS

Because farwest Nepal is least suitable for staple cereal crops, local people have always heavily relied on locally available wild plants. The extensive usage of medicinal plants in farwest Nepal indicates that the plant use is an integral part of culture. Indigenous plants are highly susceptible to overharvesting and their population and distributions have been impacted in response to the introduction of non-indigenous species. Sparse distribution of indigenous species and easy access to non-indigenous species and their habitats, compounded by the need to find for alternatives for species in decline and to treat new diseases, lead to the increment in use of non-indigenous species. Secondary and community forests are gaining importance for the harvest of non-indigenous medicinal plants as they are easily accessible and old-growth forests are overexploited. Besides easy access, ecological versatility and multiple-usefulness of secondary habitats and non-indigenous species also contribute to their increasing use in local pharmacopoeias.

CONCLUSION

The acceptance of non-indigenous resources is analogous to the cultural evolution and dynamic indigenous knowledge systems, and considered as an adaptive asset.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants in gastrointestinal disorders in Nepal

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gastrointestinal disorders cause morbidity and can lead to mortality, especially in the developing world where sanitation is deficient. A large part of the human population relies on medicinal plants for treating various diseases, including gastrointestinal disorders. The present review summarizes the traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nepal used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, and evaluates their bio-efficacy based on a review of the available phytochemical and pharmacological literature.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We searched different electronic databases and libraries for the literature on medicinal plants used in Nepal to treat gastrointestinal disorders. For each species, we also searched the literature for information on conservation status, as well as for phytochemical and pharmacological studies in support of the ethnobotanical information. We used principal component analysis to explore the relation among disorders and plant families, plant life forms, plant parts and preparation modes. We also performed permutation tests to determine if botanical families were used more often than expected considering their availability in the Nepali flora.

RESULTS

We documented a total of 947 species belonging to 158 families and 586 genera used to treat gastrointestinal disorders in Nepal. Diarrhea was the disorder treated by the highest number of species (348), followed by stomachache (340) and dysentery (307). Among the reported species, five were endemic to Nepal, whereas 16 orchid species were protected under CITES Appendices II and III. The randomization test showed that species belonging to 14 families were used less often than expected, whereas plants belonging to 25 families were used more often than expected. The PCA scatter plot showed distinct groups of gastrointestinal disorders treated with similar plant life forms, plant parts, and/or preparation modes. We found 763 phytochemical studies on 324 species and 654 pharmacological studies on 269 species.

CONCLUSION

We showed the diversity and importance of medicinal plants used to treat gastrointestinal disorders in the traditional health care system of Nepal. As such disorders are still causing several deaths each year, it is of the utmost importance to conduct phytochemical and pharmacological studies on the most promising species. It is also crucial to increase access to traditional medicine, especially in rural areas. Threatened species need special attention for traditional herbal medicine to be exploited sustainably.

Antioxidant Activity and Phenolic Content of Bergenia crassifolia, B. x ornata and B. ciliata

This study focused on a phytochemical analysis of Bergenia crassifolia (L.) Fritsch., B. ciliata (Haw.) Sternb., and B. x ornata Stein. and evaluation of their free radical scavenging properties. Arbutin and total tannin contents of the leaves of the Bergenia species were determined during different seasons. The present study also aimed at analyzing, for the first time, environmental influence on concentrations of phenolic metabolites in Bergenia leaves. The highest total tannin content was found in the leaves of B. crassifolia (24.9 – 48.7 mg.g−1 DW) and B. x ornata (36.9 mg.g−1 DW). The highest amount of arbutin was in the leaves of B. x ornata (35.8 – 51.0 mg.g−1 DW) and B. crassifolia (24.6 – 41.7 mg.g−1 DW). Autumn was better than spring for the collection of Bergenia leaves for the highest amount of arbutin ( B. x ornata: 51.0 mg.g−1 DW). Free radical scavenging potential, in DPPH and ABTS assays, of the water leaf extracts revealed that extracts of B. crassifolia and B. x ornata are the most active radical scavengers. Antioxidant activity correlated well with the content of total tannin, especially in the ABTS assay, which suggests an important role for these compounds in antioxidant activity. It was shown that phenolic concentrations in Bergenia leaves are affected by seasonal factors. A significant correlation was found between arbutin and tannin contents and the average humidity.

Ethnomedicinal plants used to treat human ailments in the prehistoric place of Harla and Dengego valleys, eastern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Traditional medicines remained as the most affordable and easily accessible source of treatment in the primary health care system among diverse communities in Ethiopia. The Oromo community living in the prehistoric Harla and Dengego valleys has long history of ethnomedicinal know-how and practice against human and livestock ailments. However, this rich ethnomedicinal knowledge had been remained unexplored hitherto. This study focus on the comprehensive ethnomedicinal investigation in an attempt to safeguard the deteriorating ethnomedicinal knowledge that can be used as a stepping-stone for phytochemical and pharmacological analysis.

METHODS

Fifty five (44 male and 11 female) systematically selected informants including ten traditional herbalists (key informants) were participated in the study. Semi-structured interviews, discussions and guided field walk constituted the data collection methods. Factor of informant consensus (Fic), frequency of citation (F%), and binomial test were employed in data analysis. Medicinal plant specimens were collected, identified and kept at Herbarium of Haramaya University (HHU).

RESULTS

A total of 83 traditional medicinal plant species against human ailments in 70 genera and 40 Families were recorded. Twelve medicinal plants were marketable in open market places of the nearby towns. Formulations recorded added to 140 remedies for 81 human ailments. Concoction accounts 50.7% of the total preparations followed by fluids extraction (10.7%) and infusion (6.4%). Fifteen different plant parts were used for remedies preparation wherein leaves accounted 46.4%, stem 9.2%, fruits and roots each 7.8%. Most of the remedies (90.7%) were prepared from single plant species like, aphrodisiac fresh rhizome of Kleinia abyssinica (A. Rich.) A. Berger chewed and swallowed few hours before sexual performance for a man having problem of erectile dysfunction. The Fic value ranges between 1.0 (gastritis and heartburn/pyrosis) and 0.77 (swollen body part). Aloe harlana Reynolds was reported to be used for the highest number of ailments treating swollen body part locally called GOFLA, colon cleaner, snake bite, liver swelling, spleen swelling/splenomegaly, fungal infections and inflammation of skin.

CONCLUSION

Such documentation of comprehensive ethnomedicinal knowledge is very valuable and needs to be scaled-up so that it could be followed up with phytochemical and pharmacological analyses in order to give scientific ground to the ethnomedicinal knowledge.

Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of central Nepal

BACKGROUND

We can conserve cultural heritage and gain extensive knowledge of plant species with pharmacological potential to cure simple to life-threatening diseases by studying the use of plants in indigenous communities. Therefore, it is important to conduct ethnobotanical studies in indigenous communities and to validate the reported uses of plants by comparing ethnobotanical studies with phytochemical and pharmacological studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was conducted in a Tamang community dwelling in the Makawanpur district of central Nepal. We used semi-structured and structured questionnaires during interviews to collect information. We compared use reports with available phytochemical and pharmacological studies for validation.

RESULTS

A total of 161 plant species belonging to 86 families and 144 genera to cure 89 human ailments were documented. Although 68 plant species were cited as medicinal in previous studies, 55 different uses described by the Tamang people were not found in any of the compared studies. Traditional uses for 60 plant species were consistent with pharmacological and phytochemical studies.

CONCLUSIONS

The Tamang people in Makawanpur are rich in ethnopharmacological understanding. The present study highlights important medicinal plant species by validating their traditional uses. Different plant species can improve local economies through proper harvesting, adequate management and development of modern techniques to maximize their use.