Ondasetron versus haloperidol for the treatment of postcardiotomy delirium: a prospective, randomized, double-blinded study

Haloperidol for the treatment of delirium in critically ill patients: an updated systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis

BACKGROUND

Haloperidol is frequently used in critically ill patients with delirium, but evidence for its effects has been sparse and inconclusive. By including recent trials, we updated a systematic review assessing effects of haloperidol on mortality and serious adverse events in critically ill patients with delirium.

METHODS

This is an updated systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomised clinical trials investigating haloperidol versus placebo or any comparator in critically ill patients with delirium. We adhered to the Cochrane handbook, the PRISMA guidelines and the grading of recommendations assessment, development and evaluation statements. The primary outcomes were all-cause mortality and proportion of patients with one or more serious adverse events or reactions (SAEs/SARs). Secondary outcomes were days alive without delirium or coma, delirium severity, cognitive function and health-related quality of life.

RESULTS

We included 11 RCTs with 15 comparisons (n = 2200); five were placebo-controlled. The relative risk for mortality with haloperidol versus placebo was 0.89; 96.7% CI 0.77 to 1.03; I2 = 0% (moderate-certainty evidence) and for proportion of patients experiencing SAEs/SARs 0.94; 96.7% CI 0.81 to 1.10; I2 = 18% (low-certainty evidence). We found no difference in days alive without delirium or coma (moderate-certainty evidence). We found sparse data for other secondary outcomes and other comparators than placebo.

CONCLUSIONS

Haloperidol may reduce mortality and likely result in little to no change in the occurrence of SAEs/SARs compared with placebo in critically ill patients with delirium. However, the results were not statistically significant and more trial data are needed to provide higher certainty for the effects of haloperidol in these patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

CRD42017081133, date of registration 28 November 2017.

Intraoperative 5-HT3 receptor antagonists decrease the prevalence of postoperative delirium in older adults undergoing hip fracture surgery: a single-center retrospective study

PURPOSE

Postoperative delirium (POD) occurs commonly in older adults, resulting in unfavorable outcomes. Several recent clinical studies have suggested that 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 (5-HT₃) receptor antagonists can treat and prevent POD. In this retrospective study, the association between 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists and POD was investigated in older adults who underwent hip fracture surgery.

METHODS

The electronic medical records of older adults aged ≥ 65 years who underwent hip fracture surgery between January 2011 and June 2018 were reviewed retrospectively. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to investigate the association between 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists and the occurrence of POD. In addition to the incidence of POD, anesthesia-, surgery-, and patient-related factors related to POD were evaluated.

RESULTS

Of the 1025 patients included, 813 (79.3%) were administered 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists intraoperatively; 471 (45.9%) were administered ramosetron, and 342 (33.4%) were administered palonosetron. POD was identified in 242 patients (23.6%). Ramosetron and palonosetron reduced the POD incidence by 53% (odds ratio [OR] 0.47; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.32‒0.71; P < 0.001) and 41% (OR 0.59; 95% CI 0.39‒0.89; P = 0.011), respectively. Additionally, age, American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status class 4, and male were confirmed as risk factors for POD.

CONCLUSION

Intraoperative 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists may be associated with a reduced risk of POD and can be considered one of the preventive strategies for POD in older adults undergoing hip fracture surgery.

Pharmacologic treatment of delirium symptoms: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

We conducted an updated, comprehensive, and contemporary systematic review to examine the efficacy of existing pharmacologic agents employed for management of delirium symptoms among hospitalized adults.

METHODS

Searches of PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases from inception to May 2021 were performed to identify studies investigating efficacy of pharmacologic agents for management of delirium.

RESULTS

Of 11,424 articles obtained from searches, a total of 33 articles (N = 3030 participants) of randomized or non-randomized trials, in which pharmacologic treatment was compared to active comparator, placebo, or no treatment, met all criteria and were included in this review. Medications used for management of delirium symptoms included antipsychotic medications (N = 27), alpha-2 agonists (N = 5), benzodiazepines (N = 2), antidepressants (n = 1), acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (N = 2), melatonin (N = 2), opioids (N = 1), and antiemetics (N = 2). Despite somewhat mixed findings and a relative lack of high-quality trials, it appears that antipsychotic medications (e.g., haloperidol, olanzapine, risperidone, or quetiapine) and dexmedetomidine have the potential to improve delirium outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmacologic agents can reduce delirium symptoms (e.g., agitation) in some hospitalized patients. Additional double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials are critically needed to investigate the efficacy of pharmacologic agents for diverse hospitalized populations (e.g., post-surgical patients, patients at the end-of-life, or in intensive care units).

5-HT3 receptor antagonists decrease the prevalence of postoperative delirium in older patients undergoing orthopedic lower limb surgery

BACKGROUND

Delirium is an important postoperative complication. Recent research suggested that 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 (5-HT₃) receptor antagonists may have clinical effect in the treatment and prevention of delirium. We investigated the association between 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists and the occurrence of postoperative delirium (POD).

METHODS

Retrospectively, the electronic medical records were reviewed in patients aged ≥ 65 years who underwent orthopedic lower limb surgery under regional anesthesia (spinal or combined spinal-epidural anesthesia) and administered intravenous 0.075 mg palonosetron or 0.3 mg ramosetron prior to the end of surgery between July 2012 and September 2015. POD incidence and anesthesia-, surgery-, and patient-related factors were evaluated. To investigate the association between 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists and the occurrence of POD, multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Of the 855 patients included, 710 (83%) were administered 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists. POD was confirmed in 46 (5.4%) patients. 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists reduced the POD incidence by 63% (odds ratio [OR] 0.37; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.15-0.94; P = 0.04). Moreover, the POD incidence decreased by 72% (OR 0.28, 95% CI 0.10-0.77, P = 0.01) when palonosetron was administered. Other identified risk factors for POD were emergency surgery, older age, hip surgery, lower body mass index, and intraoperative propofol sedation.

CONCLUSION

5-HT₃ receptor antagonists may be related with a significantly reduced risk for POD in older patients undergoing orthopedic lower limb surgery. Notably, palonosetron was more effective for POD prevention.

Delirium and depression in cardiac surgery: A comprehensive review of risk factors, pathophysiology, and management

BACKGROUND

Mental health and wellbeing continue to gain more attention as they are inextricably associated with clinical outcomes, particularly quality of life. Many medical ailments and major surgeries affect patients' mental health, including depression and delirium.

AIMS

The objective of this manuscript was to comprehensively review and critically examine the literature pertaining to cardiac surgery, depression, and delirium.

METHODS

This is a narrative review article. We performed our search analysis by using the following key words: "Cardiac Surgery", "Depression", "Delirium", "Clinical outcomes", and "Mental Health". Search analysis was done on MedLine PubMed, accessing indexed peer-reviewed publications.

RESULTS

Cardiac Surgery is a life-altering intervention indicated to improve morbidity and mortality in patients with cardiovascular diseases. Psychiatric conditions before and after cardiac surgery worsen patient prognosis and increase mortality rate. Specifically, preoperative depression increases postoperative depression and is associated with impaired functional status, slow physical recovery, and an increased readmission rate.

DISCUSSION

Although the exact pathophysiology between depression and cardiovascular disease (CVD) is unknown, several pathways have been implicated. Unmanaged depression can also lead to other psychological conditions such as delirium. Like depression, the exact association between delirium and CVD is not well understood, but believed to be multifactorial.

CONCLUSION

Herein, we provide a comprehensive review of the links between depression, delirium, and cardiovascular surgery. We critically examine the current data that pertains to the pathophysiology of these debilitating mental health issues in the context of cardiac surgery. Finally, we summarize the various treatment options available for managing depression and delirium in the cardiac surgery patient population.

Effectiveness and harms of pharmacological interventions for the treatment of delirium in adults in intensive care units after cardiac surgery: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this review was to synthesize the best available evidence on the effectiveness and harms of pharmacological interventions for the treatment of delirium in adult patients in the intensive care unit (ICU) after cardiac surgery.

INTRODUCTION

Patients who undergo cardiac surgery are at high risk of delirium (incidence: 50-90%). Delirium has deleterious effects, increasing the risk of death and adversely affecting recovery. Clinical interventional trials have been conducted to prevent and treat postoperative delirium pharmacologically including antipsychotics and sedatives. These trials have provided some evidence about efficacy and influenced clinical decision making. However, much reporting is incomplete and provides biased assessments of efficacy; benefits are emphasized while harms are inadequately reported.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

Participants were ≥ 16 years, any sex or ethnicity, who were treated postoperatively in a cardiothoracic ICU following cardiac surgery and were identified as having delirium. Any pharmacological intervention for the treatment of delirium was included, regardless of drug classification, dosage, intensity or frequency of administration. Outcomes of interest of this review were: mortality, duration and severity of delirium, use of physical restraints, quality of life, family members' satisfaction with delirium management, duration/severity of the aggressive episode, associated falls, severity of accidental self-harm, pharmacological harms, harms related to over-sedation, ICU length of stay, hospital length of stay (post ICU), total hospital length of stay, need for additional intervention medication and need for rescue medication. Randomized controlled trials were considered first and in their absence, non-randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental would have been considered, followed by analytical observational studies.

METHODS

A search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Scopus, Epistemonikos, Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ClinicalTrials.gov, Clinical Trials in New Zealand, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses to locate both published and unpublished studies. There was no date limit for the search. A hand search for primary studies published between January 1, 2012 and November 17, 2018 in relevant journals was also conducted. Only studies published in English were considered for inclusion. Two reviewers independently assessed the methodological quality using standardized critical appraisal instruments from JBI and McMaster University. Quantitative data were extracted using the standardized JBI data extraction tool. A meta-analysis was not performed, as there was too much clinical and methodological heterogeneity in the included studies. Results have been presented in a narrative form. Standard GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) evidence assessment of outcomes has been reported.

RESULTS

Three RCTs investigating morphine versus haloperidol (n = 53), ondansetron versus haloperidol (n = 72), and dexmedetomidine versus midazolam (n = 80) were included. Due to heterogeneity and incomplete reporting, a meta-analysis was not feasible. Overall, the methodological quality of these studies was found to be low. Additionally, this review found reporting of harms to be inadequate and superficial for all three studies and did not meet the required standards for harms reporting, as defined by the CONSORT statement extension for harms.

CONCLUSIONS

It was not possible to draw any valid conclusions regarding the effectiveness of morphine vs haloperidol, ondansetron vs haloperidol or dexmedetomidine vs midazolam in treating delirium after cardiac surgery. This is due to the low number of studies, the poor methodological quality in conducting and reporting and the heterogeneity between the studies.

The pharmacotherapeutic management of postoperative delirium: an expert update

INTRODUCTION

Postoperative delirium is a common sequela in older adults in the peri-operative period leading to poor outcomes with a complex pathophysiology which has led to a variety of different pharmacologic agents employed in attempts to prevent and treat this syndrome. No pharmacologic agent has been approved to treat this disorder, but this review discusses the pharmacologic strategies which have been tried based on the hypotheses of the causation of the syndrome including neurotransmitter imbalance, inflammation, and oxidative stress.

AREAS COVERED

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) were included via search of electronic databases specifically for the terms postoperative delirium and pharmacologic treatments. With this approach, the recurrent topics of analgesia and sedation, antipsychotics, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AchE-Is), inflammation, and melatonin were emphasized and provided the outline for this review.

EXPERT OPINION

Research evidence does not support any particular agent in any of the pharmacologic classes reviewed. However, there is some potential benefit with dexmedetomidine, melatonin, and the monitoring of anesthetic agents all of which need further clinical trials to validate these conclusions. Exploration of ways to improve studies and the application of novel pharmacologic agents may offer future benefit.

Haloperidol for the treatment of delirium in critically ill patients: A systematic review with meta-analysis and Trial Sequential Analysis

BACKGROUND

Haloperidol is the most frequently used drug to treat delirium in the critically ill patients. Yet, no systematic review has focussed on the effects of haloperidol in critically ill patients with delirium.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review with meta-analysis and Trial Sequential Analysis of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) assessing the effects of haloperidol vs any intervention on all-cause mortality, serious adverse reactions/events, days alive without delirium, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), cognitive function and delirium severity in critically ill patients with delirium. We also report on QTc prolongation, delirium resolution and extrapyramidal symptoms.

RESULTS

We included 8 RCTs with 11 comparisons (n = 951). We adjudicated one trial as having overall low risk of bias. Three trials used rescue haloperidol; excluding these, we did not find an effect of haloperidol vs control on all-cause mortality (RR 1.01; 95% CI 0.33-3.06; I²  = 0%; 112 participants; 3 trials; 4 comparisons; very low certainty) or delirium severity (SMD -0.15; 95% CI -0.61-0.30; I²  = 27%; 134 participants; 3 trials; 4 comparisons; very low certainty). No trials reported adequately on serious adverse reactions/events. Only one trial reported on days alive without delirium, cognitive function and QTc prolongation, and no trials reported on HRQoL. Sensitivity analyses, including trials using rescue haloperidol, did not change the results.

CONCLUSIONS

The evidence for the use of haloperidol to treat critically ill patients with delirium is sparse, of low quality and inconclusive. We therefore have no certainty regarding any beneficial, harmful or neutral effects of haloperidol in these patients.

Pharmacological interventions for the treatment of delirium in critically ill adults

BACKGROUND

Although delirium is typically an acute reversible cognitive impairment, its presence is associated with devastating impact on both short-term and long-term outcomes for critically ill patients. Advances in our understanding of the negative impact of delirium on patient outcomes have prompted trials evaluating multiple pharmacological interventions. However, considerable uncertainty surrounds the relative benefits and safety of available pharmacological interventions for this population.

OBJECTIVES

Primary objective1. To assess the effects of pharmacological interventions for treatment of delirium on duration of delirium in critically ill adults with confirmed or documented high risk of deliriumSecondary objectivesTo assess the following:1. effects of pharmacological interventions on delirium-free and coma-free days; days with coma; delirium relapse; duration of mechanical ventilation; intensive care unit (ICU) and hospital length of stay; mortality; and long-term outcomes (e.g. cognitive; discharge disposition; health-related quality of life); and2. the safety of such treatments for critically ill adult patients.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following databases from their inception date to 21 March 2019: Ovid MEDLINE®, Ovid MEDLINE® In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, Embase Classic+Embase, and PsycINFO using the Ovid platform. We also searched the Cochrane Library on Wiley, the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) (http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/), the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), and Web of Science. We performed a grey literature search of relevant databases and websites using the resources listed in Grey Matters developed by the Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (CADTH). We also searched trial registries and abstracts from annual scientific critical care and delirium society meetings.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We sought randomized controlled trials (RCTs), including quasi-RCTs, of any pharmacological (drug) for treatment of delirium in critically ill adults. The drug intervention was to be compared to another active drug treatment, placebo, or a non-pharmacological intervention (e.g. mobilization). We did not apply any restrictions in terms of drug class, dose, route of administration, or duration of delirium or drug exposure. We defined critically ill patients as those treated in an ICU of any specialty (e.g. burn, cardiac, medical, surgical, trauma) or high-dependency unit.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently identified studies from the search results; four review authors (in pairs) performed data extraction and assessed risk of bias independently. We performed data synthesis through pairwise meta-analysis and network meta-analysis (NMA). Our hypothetical network structure was designed to be analysed at the drug class level and illustrated a network diagram of 'nodes' (i.e. drug classes) and 'edges' (i.e. comparisons between different drug classes from existing trials), thus describing a treatment network of all possible comparisons between drug classes. We assessed the quality of the body of evidence according to GRADE, as very low, low, moderate, or high.

MAIN RESULTS

We screened 7674 citations, from which 14 trials with 1844 participants met our inclusion criteria. Ten RCTs were placebo-controlled, and four reported comparisons of different drugs. Drugs examined in these trials were the following: antipsychotics (n = 10), alpha2 agonists (n = 3; all dexmedetomidine), statins (n = 2), opioids (n = 1; morphine), serotonin antagonists (n = 1; ondansetron), and cholinesterase (CHE) inhibitors (n = 1; rivastigmine). Only one of these trials consistently used non-pharmacological interventions that are known to improve patient outcomes in both intervention and control groups.Eleven studies (n = 1153 participants) contributed to analysis of the primary outcome. Results of the NMA showed that the intervention with the smallest ratio of means (RoM) (i.e. most preferred) compared with placebo was the alpha2 agonist dexmedetomidine (0.58; 95% credible interval (CrI) 0.26 to 1.27; surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA) 0.895; moderate-quality evidence). In order of descending SUCRA values (best to worst), the next best interventions were atypical antipsychotics (RoM 0.80, 95% CrI 0.50 to 1.11; SUCRA 0.738; moderate-quality evidence), opioids (RoM 0.88, 95% CrI 0.37 to 2.01; SUCRA 0.578; very-low quality evidence), and typical antipsychotics (RoM 0.96, 95% CrI 0.64 to1.36; SUCRA 0.468; high-quality evidence).The NMAs of multiple secondary outcomes revealed that only the alpha2 agonist dexmedetomidine was associated with a shorter duration of mechanical ventilation (RoM 0.55, 95% CrI 0.34 to 0.89; moderate-quality evidence), and the CHE inhibitor rivastigmine was associated with a longer ICU stay (RoM 2.19, 95% CrI 1.47 to 3.27; moderate-quality evidence). Adverse events often were not reported in these trials or, when reported, were rare; pair-wise analysis of QTc prolongation in seven studies did not show significant differences between antipsychotics, ondansetron, dexmedetomidine, and placebo.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We identified trials of varying quality that examined six different drug classes for treatment of delirium in critically ill adults. We found evidence that the alpha2 agonist dexmedetomidine may shorten delirium duration, although this small effect (compared with placebo) was seen in pairwise analyses based on a single study and was not seen in the NMA results. Alpha2 agonists also ranked best for duration of mechanical ventilation and length of ICU stay, whereas the CHE inhibitor rivastigmine was associated with longer ICU stay. We found no evidence of a difference between placebo and any drug in terms of delirium-free and coma-free days, days with coma, physical restraint use, length of stay, long-term cognitive outcomes, or mortality. No studies reported delirium relapse, resolution of symptoms, or quality of life. The ten ongoing studies and the six studies awaiting classification that we identified, once published and assessed, may alter the conclusions of the review.

Efficacy of Ondansetron in the Prevention or Treatment of Post-operative Delirium-a Systematic Review

Background

Post-operative delirium (POD) is associated with higher rates of functional decline and death. Ondansetron is a serotonin antagonist which could represent a therapeutic or preventive option in POD.

Methods

A systematic review of MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL, and PsychINFO was performed. Three randomized controlled trials (RCTs) met inclusion criteria (intervention of ondansetron compared to a control group).

Results

Two RCTs examined ondansetron for the treatment of POD in patients after cardiac or post-trauma surgery in the ICU. Studies assessed either a one-time dose or doses for 3 days of ondansetron or haloperidol IV. They suggested similar reductions in average delirium scores and rates in both interventions, although one study suggested ondansetron to be associated with higher rates of rescue haloperidol use. One RCT examined prophylactic ondansetron versus placebo IV, for five days postoperatively, to prevent POD in orthopedic patients. There were significantly fewer delirious patients in the ondansetron group. In general, studies had major methodological limitations and were very heterogenous in study tools, interventions used, and populations studied.

Conclusions

Ondansetron may be an effective agent for the prevention or treatment of POD, but studies are few and of poor quality, thus making the conclusions tenuous. Further large RCTs are needed.

Pharmacological interventions for prevention and management of delirium in intensive care patients: a systematic overview of reviews and meta-analyses

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the evidence from reviews and meta-analyses of randomised clinical trials on the effects of pharmacological prevention and management of delirium in intensive care unit (ICU) patients.

METHODS

We searched for reviews in July 2017 in: Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, Embase, Science Citation Index, BIOSIS Previews, CINAHL and LILACS. We assessed whether reviews were systematic according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) and assessed the methodological quality using ROBIS.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Primary outcomes: all-cause mortality, serious adverse events, prevention of delirium and management of delirium.

SECONDARY OUTCOMES

quality of life; non-serious adverse events and cognitive function.

RESULTS

We included 378 reviews: 369 narrative reviews, eight semisystematic reviews which failed on a maximum of two arbitrary PRISMA criteria and one systematic review fulfilling all 27 PRISMA criteria. For the prevention of delirium, we identified the one systematic review and eight semisystematic reviews all assessing the effects of alpha-2-agonists. None found evidence of a reduction of mortality (systematic review RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.79 to 1.24). The systematic review and three semisystematic reviews found no evidence of an effect for the prevention of delirium (systematic review RR 0.85, 0.63 to 1.14). Conversely, four semisystematic reviews found a beneficial effect. Serious adverse events, quality of life, non-serious adverse events and cognitive function were not assessed. We did not identify any systematic or semisystematic reviews addressing other pharmacological interventions for the prevention of delirium. For the management of manifest delirium, we did not identify any systematic or semisystematic review assessing any pharmacological agents.

CONCLUSION

Based on systematic reviews, the evidence for the use of pharmacological interventions for prevention or management of delirium is poor or sparse. A systematic review with low risk of bias assessing the effects of pharmacological prevention of delirium and management of manifest delirium in ICU patients is urgently needed.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42016046628.

Effectiveness and harms of pharmacological interventions in the treatment of delirium in adults in intensive care units post cardiac surgery: a systematic review protocol

REVIEW QUESTION/OBJECTIVE

The review objective is to synthesize the best available evidence on the effectiveness and harms of pharmacological interventions in the treatment of delirium in adults in intensive care units (ICU) after cardiac surgery.The specific review question is: What is the effectiveness and what are the harms of pharmacological interventions in relation to the duration and severity of delirium episodes, length of stay in ICU, length of stay in hospital, functional capacity and quality of life and mortality for critically ill adult patients treated in intensive care after cardiac surgery?

Haloperidol for delirium in critically ill patients - protocol for a systematic review

BACKGROUND

In the intensive care unit, the prevalence of delirium is high. Delirium has been associated with morbidity and mortality including more ventilator days, longer intensive care unit stay, increased long-term mortality, and cognitive impairment. Thus, the burden of delirium for patients, relatives, and societies is considerable. The objective of this systematic review was to critically access the evidence of randomised clinical trials on the effects of haloperidol vs. placebo or any other agents for delirium in critically ill patients.

METHODS

We will search for randomised clinical trials in the following databases: Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index, BIOSIS, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature, and Allied and Complementary Medicine Database. Two authors will independently screen and select references for inclusion using Covidence, extract data and assess the methodological quality of the included randomised clinical trials using the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Any disagreement will be resolved by consensus. We will analyse the extracted data using Review Manager, STATA 15, and Trial Sequential.

ANALYSIS

The aim of this study was to assess the quality of the evidence, we will create a 'Summary of Findings' table containing our primary and secondary outcomes using the GRADE assessment.

DISCUSSION

Our ambition with this systematic review is to provide reliable and powered evidence to better inform decision makers on the use of or future trials with haloperidol for the management of delirium in critically ill patients.

Delirium is a Common and Early Finding in Patients in the Pediatric Cardiac Intensive Care Unit

OBJECTIVE

To determine incidence, associated risk factors, and characteristics of delirium in a pediatric cardiac intensive care unit (CICU). Delirium is a frequent and serious complication in adults after cardiac surgery, but there is limited understanding of its impact in children with critical cardiac disease.

STUDY DESIGN

Single-center prospective observational study of CICU patients ≤21 years old. All were screened for delirium using the Cornell Assessment for Pediatric Delirium each 12-hour shift.

RESULTS

Ninety-nine patients were included. Incidence of delirium was 57%. Median time to development of delirium was 1 day (95% CI 0, 1 days). Children with delirium were younger (geometric mean age 4 vs 46 months; P < .001), had longer periods of mechanical ventilation (mean 35.9 vs 8.8 hours; P = .002) and had longer cardiopulmonary bypass times (geometric mean 126 vs 81 minutes; P = .001). Delirious patients had longer length of CICU stay than those without delirium (median 3 (IQR 2, 12.5) vs 1 (IQR1, 2) days; P < .0001). A multivariable generalized linear mixed model showed a significant association between delirium and younger age (OR 0.35 for each additional month, 95% CI 0.19, 0.64), need for mechanical ventilation (OR 4.1, 95% CI 1.7, 9.89), and receipt of benzodiazepines (OR 3.78, 95% CI 1.46, 9.79).

CONCLUSIONS

Delirium is common in patients in the pediatric CICU and is associated with longer length of stay. There may be opportunities for prevention of delirium by targeting modifiable risk factors, such as use of benzodiazepines.

Acute Brain Failure: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management, and Sequelae of Delirium

Delirium is the most common psychiatric syndrome found in the general hospital setting, with an incidence as high as 87% in the acute care setting. Delirium is a neurobehavioral syndrome caused by the transient disruption of normal neuronal activity secondary to systemic disturbances. The development of delirium is associated with increased morbidity, mortality, cost of care, hospital-acquired complications, placement in specialized intermediate and long-term care facilities, slower rate of recovery, poor functional and cognitive recovery, decreased quality of life, and prolonged hospital stays. This article discusses the epidemiology, known etiological factors, presentation and characteristics, prevention, management, and impact of delirium.

Comparison of propofol and dexmedetomidine infused overnight to treat hyperactive and mixed ICU delirium: a protocol for the Basel ProDex clinical trial

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Delirium is a neurobehavioural disturbance that frequently develops particularly in the intensive care unit (ICU) population. It was first described more than half a century ago, where it was already discovered as a state that might come along with serious complications such as prolonged ICU and hospital stay, reduced quality of life and increased mortality. However, in most cases, there is still lack of proof for causal relationship. Its presence frequently remains unrecognised due to suggested predominance of the hypoactive form. Furthermore, in the general ICU population, it has been shown that the duration of delirium is associated with worse long-term cognitive function. Due to the multifactorial origin of delirium, we have several but no incontestable treatment options. Nonetheless, delirium bears a high burden for patient, family members and the medical care team.The Basel ProDex Study targets improvement of hyperactive and mixed delirium therapy in critically ill patients. We will focus on reducing the duration and severity of delirium by implementing dexmedetomidine into the treatment plan. Dexmedetomidine compared with other sedatives shows fewer side effects representing a better risk profile for delirium treatment in general. This could further contribute to higher patient safety.The aim of the BaProDex Trial is to assess the superiority of dexmedetomidine to propofol for treatment of hyperactive and mixed delirium in the ICU. We hypothesise that dexmedetomidine, compared with propofol administered at night, shortens both the duration and severity of delirium.

METHODS/DESIGN

The Basel ProDex Study is an investigator-initiated, one-institutional, two-centre randomised controlled clinical trial for the treatment of delirium with dexmedetomidine versus propofol in 316 critically ill patients suffering from hyperactive and mixed delirium. The primary outcome measure is delirium duration in hours. Secondary outcomes include delirium-free days at day 28, death at day 28, delirium severity, amount of ventilator days, amount of rescue sedation with haloperidol, length of ICU and hospital stay, and pharmaceutical economic analysis of the treatments. Sample size was estimated to be able to show the superiority of dexmedetomidine compared with propofol regarding the duration of delirium in hours. The trial will be externally monitored according to good clinical practice (GCP) requirements. There are no interim analyses planned for this trial.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This study will be conducted in compliance with the protocol, the current version of the Declaration of Helsinki, the International Conference on Harmonization- Good Clinical Practice (ICH-GCP) or Europäische Norm International Organization for Standardization (ISO EN 14155; as far as applicable) as well as all national legal and regulatory requirements. Only the study team will have access to trial specific data. Anonymisation will be achieved by a unique patient identification code. Trial data will be archived for a minimum of 10 years after study termination. We plan to publish the data in a major peer-reviewed clinical journal.

TRIALS REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02807467 PROTOCOL VERSION: Clinical Study Protocol Version 2, 16.08.2016.

Haloperidol Use Among Elderly Patients Undergoing Surgery: A Retrospective 1-Year Study in a Hospital Population

BACKGROUND

Haloperidol, frequently used for delirium, can lead to serious side effects, of which QTc prolongation is the most worrisome since it is associated with an increased risk of fatal cardiac arrhythmia.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to measure the frequency of haloperidol use after procedures in patients aged ≥65 years in a hospital in the Netherlands.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study among patients hospitalized in the Netherlands who were aged ≥65 years and who underwent a procedure between January 2008 and January 2009. The hospital's electronic drug database was used to identify the use of haloperidol during hospital admission.

RESULTS

A total of 7782 procedures took place in 5946 elderly patients, and 1357 patients were readmitted for a second procedure in the same year. The overall frequency of haloperidol use was 5.4 %. Procedures were classified as elective (90 %) and as major (18 %). A total of 28 % (n = 570) of patients who underwent acute procedures and 24 % (n = 1086) of patients who underwent major procedures received haloperidol. Patients receiving haloperidol had a significantly longer hospital stay (14 vs. 1 day, p < 0.001) than patients without haloperidol. Haloperidol users were more likely to have more than one intervention than non-users (16.0 vs. 1.7 %, p < 0.001). In multivariable analysis, haloperidol use was associated with older age (odds ratio [OR] 1.09; 95 % confidence interval [CI] 1.07-1.11, p < 0.001), acute surgery (OR 2.09; 95 % CI 1.65-2.94, p < 0.001), and major procedures (OR 15.4; 95 % CI 11.5-21.5, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

We show a frequency of haloperidol use of 5.4 %. Based on this high frequency, surveillance of adverse events in hospital should be performed systematically, particularly in the high-risk population that undergoes acute major surgery.

Efficacy and safety of haloperidol for in-hospital delirium prevention and treatment: A systematic review of current evidence

OBJECTIVE

Haloperidol is generally considered the drug of choice for in-hospital delirium management. We conducted a systematic review to evaluate the evidence for the efficacy and safety of haloperidol for the prevention and treatment of delirium in hospitalized patients.

METHODS

PubMed, Embase, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health (CINAHL), PsycINFO, and the Cochrane Library were systematically searched up to April 21, 2015. We included English full-text randomized controlled trials using haloperidol for the prevention or treatment of delirium in adult hospitalized patients reporting on delirium incidence, duration, or severity as primary outcome. Quality of evidence was graded. Meta-analysis was not conducted because of between-study heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Twelve studies met our inclusion criteria, four prevention and eight treatment trials. Methodological limitations decreased the graded quality of included studies. Results from placebo-controlled prevention studies suggest a haloperidol-induced protective effect for delirium in older patients scheduled for surgery: two studies reported a significant reduction in ICU delirium incidence and one study found a significant reduction in delirium severity and duration. Although placebo-controlled trials are missing, pharmacological treatment of established delirium reduced symptom severity. Haloperidol administration was not associated with treatment-limiting side-effects, but few studies used a systematic approach to identify adverse events.

CONCLUSION

Although results on haloperidol for delirium management seem promising, current prevention trials lack external validity and treatment trials did not include a placebo arm on top of standard nonpharmacological care. We therefore conclude that the current use of haloperidol for in-hospital delirium is not based on robust and generalizable evidence.

Pharmacologic agents for the prevention and treatment of delirium in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: systematic review and metaanalysis

OBJECTIVES

Postcardiac surgery delirium is associated with increased risks of morbidity, cognitive decline, poor health-related quality of life and mortality, and higher healthcare costs. We performed a systematic review of randomized controlled trials to examine the effect of pharmacologic agents for the prevention and the treatment of delirium after cardiac surgery.

DATA SOURCES

Electronic search on PubMed, Medline, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, ISI Web of Science, and CINAHL up to December 2013.

STUDY SELECTION

Randomized controlled trials of pharmacologic agents used for the prevention and the treatment of delirium after emergency or elective cardiac surgery in adults.

DATA EXTRACTION

We extracted data on patient population, pharmacologic agents, delirium characteristics, rescue treatment, length of stays in the ICU and hospital, and mortality. For each trial, we assessed the risk of bias domains and rated the quality of evidence using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Of the 13 studies (10 prevention and three treatment) involving 5,848 patients, one multicentered randomized controlled trial on prophylactic dexamethasone made up 77% of the total sample size. The use of pharmacologic agents (dexamethasone, rivastigmine, risperidone, ketamine, dexmedetomidine, propofol, and clonidine) reduced the risk of delirium (relative risk, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.40-0.80) with quality of evidence rated as moderate. There was high quality of evidence for no increased risk of mortality (relative risk, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.57-1.38) associated with the use of prophylactic pharmacologic agents. Metaanalysis of treatment trials was not undertaken because of high heterogeneity. In two small trials (total number of patients = 133), haloperidol did not appear to be effective in treating delirium.

CONCLUSIONS

Moderate to high-quality evidence supports the use of pharmacologic agents for the prevention of delirium, but results are based largely on one randomized controlled trial. The evidence for treating postcardiac surgery delirium with pharmacologic agents is inconclusive.

Management of delirium in palliative care: a review

Delirium is a complex but common disorder in palliative care with a prevalence between 13 and 88 % but a particular frequency at the end of life (terminal delirium). By reviewing the most relevant studies (MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycLit, PsycInfo, Cochrane Library), a correct assessment to make the diagnosis (e.g., DSM-5, delirium assessment tools), the identification of the possible etiological factors, and the application of multicomponent and integrated interventions were reported as the correct steps to effectively manage delirium in palliative care. In terms of medications, both conventional (e.g., haloperidol) and atypical antipsychotics (e.g., olanzapine, risperidone, quetiapine, aripiprazole) were shown to be equally effective in the treatment of delirium. No recommendation was possible in palliative care regarding the use of other drugs (e.g., α-2 receptors agonists, psychostimulants, cholinesterase inhibitors, melatonergic drugs). Non-pharmacological interventions (e.g., behavioral and educational) were also shown to be important in the management of delirium. More research is necessary to clarify how to more thoroughly manage delirium in palliative care.

Update on Pharmacotherapy for Prevention and Treatment of Post-operative Delirium: A Systematic Evidence Review

Delirium is highly prevalent among elderly post-operative patients with no pharmacological intervention approved by the Food and Drug Administration for prevention or treatment. We conducted a systematic evidence review to critically appraise literature related to the pharmacotherapy of post-operative delirium. Ten studies fulfilled our inclusion criteria with two interventions for delirium treatment and eight interventions for delirium prevention in post-operative patients. The quality of evidence of delirium treatment studies was poor, whereas the quality of evidence in delirium prevention studies ranges from moderate to high. Delirium treatment studies find similar delirium duration and length-of-stay outcomes between haloperidol and either morphine or ondansetron. Risperidone was found to reduce the conversion of sub-syndromal delirium to delirium in one study compared to placebo. Haloperidol, olanzapine, and ketamine were each found to reduce delirium incidence, whereas rivastigmine had no impact on delirium incidence or duration. Lighter anesthesia as monitored by bi-spectral index led to a decreased delirium incidence. Considering results from studies conducted prior to the dates of this review, the current evidence suggests that certain pharmacologic classes and lighter sedation using BIS monitoring may prevent post-operative delirium, although a conclusive recommendation for clinical practice must await further research.

Treating an established episode of delirium in palliative care: expert opinion and review of the current evidence base with recommendations for future development

CONTEXT

Delirium is a highly prevalent complication in patients in palliative care settings, especially in the end-of-life context.

OBJECTIVES

To review the current evidence base for treating episodes of delirium in palliative care settings and propose a framework for future development.

METHODS

We combined multidisciplinary input from delirium researchers and other purposely selected stakeholders at an international delirium study planning meeting. This was supplemented by a literature search of multiple databases and relevant reference lists to identify studies regarding therapeutic interventions for delirium.

RESULTS

The context of delirium management in palliative care is highly variable. The standard management of a delirium episode includes the investigation of precipitating and aggravating factors followed by symptomatic treatment with drug therapy. However, the intensity of this management depends on illness trajectory and goals of care in addition to the local availability of both investigative modalities and therapeutic interventions. Pharmacologically, haloperidol remains the practice standard by consensus for symptomatic control. Dosing schedules are derived from expert opinion and various clinical practice guidelines as evidence-based data from palliative care settings are limited. The commonly used pharmacologic interventions for delirium in this population warrant evaluation in clinical trials to examine dosing and titration regimens, different routes of administration, and safety and efficacy compared with placebo.

CONCLUSION

Delirium treatment is multidimensional and includes the identification of precipitating and aggravating factors. For symptomatic management, haloperidol remains the practice standard. Further high-quality collaborative research investigating the appropriate treatment of this complex syndrome is needed.

Delirium in the cardiac surgical ICU

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Evidence is emerging that delirium is associated with both short-term and long-term morbidity and mortality. This review highlights the epidemiology, outcomes, prevention and treatment strategies associated with delirium after cardiac surgery.

RECENT FINDINGS

The incidence of delirium after cardiac surgery is estimated to be 26-52%, with a significant percentage being hypoactive delirium. It is clear that without an appropriate structured test for delirium, the incidence of delirium will be underrecognized clinically. Delirium after cardiac surgery is associated with poor outcomes, including increased long-term mortality, increased risk of stroke, poor functional status, increased hospital readmissions and substantial cognitive dysfunction for 1 year following surgery. The effectiveness of prophylactic antipsychotics to reduce the risk of delirium is controversial, with data from recent small studies in noncardiac surgery potentially showing a benefit. Although antipsychotic medications are often used to treat delirium, the evidence that antipsychotics in cardiac surgery patients reduce duration of delirium or improve long-term outcomes following delirium is poor.

SUMMARY

Clinicians in the ICU must recognize the impact of delirium in predicting long-term outcomes for patients. Further research is needed in determining interventions that will be effective in preventing and treating delirium in cardiac surgical setting.

Haloperidol prophylaxis does not prevent postoperative delirium in elderly patients: a randomized, open-label prospective trial

PURPOSE

Postoperative delirium is the most common postoperative complication in the elderly. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of the preventive administration of low-dose haloperidol on the development of postoperative delirium after abdominal or orthopedic surgery in elderly patients.

SUBJECTS

A total of 119 patients aged 75 years or older who underwent elective surgery for digestive or orthopedic disease were included in this study.

METHODS

Patients were divided into those who did (intervention group, n = 59) and did not (control group, n = 60) receive 2.5 mg of haloperidol at 18:00 daily for 3 days after surgery; a randomized, open-label prospective study was performed on these groups. The primary endpoint was the incidence of postoperative delirium during the first 7 days after the operation.

RESULTS

The incidence of postoperative delirium in all patients was 37.8%. No side effects involving haloperidol were noted; however, the incidences of postoperative delirium were 42.4 and 33.3% in the intervention and control groups, respectively, which were not significantly different (p = 0.309). No significant effect of the treatment was observed on the severity or persistence of postoperative delirium.

CONCLUSIONS

The preventive administration of low-dose haloperidol did not induce any adverse events, but also did not significantly decrease the incidence or severity of postoperative delirium or shorten its persistence.

Neuropathogenesis of delirium: review of current etiologic theories and common pathways

Delirium is a neurobehavioral syndrome caused by dysregulation of neuronal activity secondary to systemic disturbances. Over time, a number of theories have been proposed in an attempt to explain the processes leading to the development of delirium. Each proposed theory has focused on a specific mechanism or pathologic process (e.g., dopamine excess or acetylcholine deficiency theories), observational and experiential evidence (e.g., sleep deprivation, aging), or empirical data (e.g., specific pharmacologic agents' association with postoperative delirium, intraoperative hypoxia). This article represents a review of published literature and summarizes the top seven proposed theories and their interrelation. This review includes the "neuroinflammatory," "neuronal aging," "oxidative stress," "neurotransmitter deficiency," "neuroendocrine," "diurnal dysregulation," and "network disconnectivity" hypotheses. Most of these theories are complementary, rather than competing, with many areas of intersection and reciprocal influence. The literature suggests that many factors or mechanisms included in these theories lead to a final common outcome associated with an alteration in neurotransmitter synthesis, function, and/or availability that mediates the complex behavioral and cognitive changes observed in delirium. In general, the most commonly described neurotransmitter changes associated with delirium include deficiencies in acetylcholine and/or melatonin availability; excess in dopamine, norepinephrine, and/or glutamate release; and variable alterations (e.g., either a decreased or increased activity, depending on delirium presentation and cause) in serotonin, histamine, and/or γ-aminobutyric acid. In the end, it is unlikely that any one of these theories is fully capable of explaining the etiology or phenomenologic manifestations of delirium but rather that two or more of these, if not all, act together to lead to the biochemical derangement and, ultimately, to the complex cognitive and behavioral changes characteristic of delirium.

Comprehensive approaches to managing delirium in patients with advanced cancer

Delirium is a frequently under-recognized complication in patients with advanced cancer. Uncontrolled delirium eventually leads to significant distress to patients and their families. However, delirium episodes can be reversed in half of these patients by eliminating precipitating factors and using appropriate interventions. The purpose of this narrative review is to discuss the most recent updates in the literature on the management of delirium in patients with advanced cancer. This article addresses the epidemiology, cause, pathophysiology, clinical characteristics, and assessment of delirium as well as various treatment options, including nonpharmacologic intervention and palliative sedation.