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Ryding M, Mikkelsen AW, Nissen MS, Nilsson AC, Blaabjerg M. Pathophysiological Effects of Autoantibodies in Autoimmune Encephalitides. Cells 2023; 13:15. [PMID: 38201219 PMCID: PMC10778077 DOI: 10.3390/cells13010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The heterogeneity of autoantibody targets in autoimmune encephalitides presents a challenge for understanding cellular and humoral pathophysiology, and the development of new treatment strategies. Thus, current treatment aims at autoantibody removal and immunosuppression, and is primarily based on data generated from other autoimmune neurological diseases and expert consensus. There are many subtypes of autoimmune encephalitides, which now entails both diseases with autoantibodies targeting extracellular antigens and classical paraneoplastic syndromes with autoantibodies targeting intracellular antigens. Here, we review the current knowledge of molecular and cellular effects of autoantibodies associated with autoimmune encephalitis, and evaluate the evidence behind the proposed pathophysiological mechanisms of autoantibodies in autoimmune encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matias Ryding
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark;
- Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark
| | - Anne With Mikkelsen
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Odense University Hospital, 5000 Odense, Denmark;
| | | | - Anna Christine Nilsson
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark;
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Odense University Hospital, 5000 Odense, Denmark;
| | - Morten Blaabjerg
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark;
- Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, 5000 Odense, Denmark;
- Brain Research—Inter Disciplinary Guided Excellence (BRIDGE), 5000 Odense, Denmark
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2
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Vlad B, Wang Y, Newsome SD, Balint B. Stiff Person Spectrum Disorders-An Update and Outlook on Clinical, Pathophysiological and Treatment Perspectives. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2500. [PMID: 37760941 PMCID: PMC10525659 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11092500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Stiff person spectrum disorders (SPSD) are paradigm autoimmune movement disorders characterized by stiffness, spasms and hyperekplexia. Though rare, SPSD represent a not-to-miss diagnosis because of the associated disease burden and treatment implications. After decades as an enigmatic orphan disease, major advances in our understanding of the evolving spectrum of diseases have been made along with the identification of multiple associated autoantibodies. However, the most important recent developments relate to the recognition of a wider affection, beyond the classic core motor symptoms, and to further insights into immunomodulatory and symptomatic therapies. In this review, we summarize the recent literature on the clinical and paraclinical spectrum, current pathophysiological understanding, as well as current and possibly future therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Vlad
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Yujie Wang
- Department of Neurology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Division of Neuroimmunology and Neurological Infections, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Scott D. Newsome
- Division of Neuroimmunology and Neurological Infections, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Bettina Balint
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
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3
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Mitoma H, Manto M. Advances in the Pathogenesis of Auto-antibody-Induced Cerebellar Synaptopathies. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2023; 22:129-147. [PMID: 35064896 PMCID: PMC9883363 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-021-01359-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The presence of auto-antibodies that target synaptic machinery proteins was documented recently in immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias. The autoantigens include glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65), voltage-gated Ca2+ channel (VGCC), metabotropic glutamate receptor type 1 (mGluR1), and glutamate receptor delta (GluRdelta). GAD65 is involved in the synthesis, packaging, and release of GABA, whereas the other three play important roles in the induction of long-term depression (LTD). Thus, the auto-antibodies toward these synaptic molecules likely impair fundamental synaptic machineries involved in unique functions of the cerebellum, potentially leading to the development of cerebellar ataxias (CAs). This concept has been substantiated recently by a series of physiological studies. Anti-GAD65 antibody (Ab) acts on the terminals of inhibitory neurons that suppress GABA release, whereas anti-VGCC, anti-mGluR1, and anti-GluR Abs impair LTD induction. Notably, the mechanisms that link synaptic dysfunction with the manifestations of CAs can be explained by disruption of the "internal models." The latter can be divided into three levels. First, since chained inhibitory neurons shape the output signals through the mechanism of disinhibition/inhibition, impairments of GABA release and LTD distort the conversion process from the "internal model" to the output signals. Second, these antibodies impair the induction of synaptic plasticity, rebound potentiation, and LTD, on Purkinje cells, resulting in loss of restoration and compensation of the distorted "internal models." Finally, the cross-talk between glutamate and microglia/astrocytes could involve a positive feedback loop that accelerates excitotoxicity. This mini-review summarizes the pathophysiological mechanisms and aims to establish the basis of "auto-antibody-induced cerebellar synaptopathies."
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Mitoma
- Department of Medical Education, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mario Manto
- Unité des Ataxies Cérébelleuses, Service de Neurologie, Médiathèque Jean Jacquy, CHU-Charleroi, 6000 Charleroi, Belgium ,Service des Neurosciences, University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium
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4
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Muñiz-Castrillo S, Vogrig A, Ciano-Petersen NL, Villagrán-García M, Joubert B, Honnorat J. Novelties in Autoimmune and Paraneoplastic Cerebellar Ataxias: Twenty Years of Progresses. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2022; 21:573-591. [PMID: 35020135 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-021-01363-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Major advances in our knowledge concerning autoimmune and paraneoplastic cerebellar ataxias have occurred in the last 20 years. The discovery of several neural antibodies represents an undeniable contribution to this field, especially those serving as good biomarkers of paraneoplastic neurological syndromes and those showing direct pathogenic effects. Yet, many patients still lack detectable or known antibodies, and also many antibodies have only been reported in few patients, which makes it difficult to define in detail their clinical value. Nevertheless, a notable progress has additionally been made in the clinical characterization of patients with the main neural antibodies, which, although typically present with a subacute pancerebellar syndrome, may also show either hyperacute or chronic onsets that complicate the differential diagnoses. However, prodromal and transient features could be useful clues for an early recognition, and extracerebellar involvement may also be highly indicative of the associated antibody. Moreover, important advances in our understanding of the pathogenesis of cerebellar ataxias include the description of antibody effects, especially those targeting cell-surface antigens, and first attempts to isolate antigen-specific T-cells. Furthermore, genetic predisposition seems relevant, although differently involved according to cancer association, with particular HLA observed in non-paraneoplastic cases and genetic abnormalities in the tumor cells in paraneoplastic ones. Finally, immune checkpoint inhibitors used as cancer immunotherapy may rarely induce cerebellar ataxias, but even this undesirable effect may in turn serve to shed some light on their physiopathology. Herein, we review the principal novelties of the last 20 years regarding autoimmune and paraneoplastic cerebellar ataxias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Muñiz-Castrillo
- French Reference Center on Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndromes and Autoimmune Encephalitis, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Neurologique, 59 Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France
- SynatAc Team, Institut NeuroMyoGène, INSERM U1217, CNRS, UMR 5310, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Alberto Vogrig
- French Reference Center on Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndromes and Autoimmune Encephalitis, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Neurologique, 59 Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France
- SynatAc Team, Institut NeuroMyoGène, INSERM U1217, CNRS, UMR 5310, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Nicolás Lundahl Ciano-Petersen
- French Reference Center on Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndromes and Autoimmune Encephalitis, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Neurologique, 59 Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France
- SynatAc Team, Institut NeuroMyoGène, INSERM U1217, CNRS, UMR 5310, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Macarena Villagrán-García
- French Reference Center on Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndromes and Autoimmune Encephalitis, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Neurologique, 59 Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France
- SynatAc Team, Institut NeuroMyoGène, INSERM U1217, CNRS, UMR 5310, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Bastien Joubert
- French Reference Center on Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndromes and Autoimmune Encephalitis, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Neurologique, 59 Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France
- SynatAc Team, Institut NeuroMyoGène, INSERM U1217, CNRS, UMR 5310, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Jérôme Honnorat
- French Reference Center on Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndromes and Autoimmune Encephalitis, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Neurologique, 59 Boulevard Pinel, 69677, Bron Cedex, France.
- SynatAc Team, Institut NeuroMyoGène, INSERM U1217, CNRS, UMR 5310, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France.
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Chan CK, Pimentel Maldonado DA, Wang Y, Obando D, Hughes AJ, Newsome SD. Cognitive and Mood Profiles Among Patients With Stiff Person Syndrome Spectrum Disorders. Front Neurol 2022; 13:865462. [PMID: 35693022 PMCID: PMC9184450 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.865462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
An emerging body of evidence suggests that changes in cognitive and emotional function are common aspects of stiff person spectrum disorders (SPSD). We sought to examine the pattern of cognitive impairment and psychiatric symptoms in SPSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol K. Chan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | | | - Yujie Wang
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Neurology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Danielle Obando
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Abbey J. Hughes
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Scott D. Newsome
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
- *Correspondence: Scott D. Newsome
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6
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Hsieh PC, Wu YR. Diagnosis and Clinical Features in Autoimmune-Mediated Movement Disorders. J Mov Disord 2022; 15:95-105. [PMID: 35670020 PMCID: PMC9171305 DOI: 10.14802/jmd.21077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Movement disorders are common manifestations in autoimmune-mediated encephalitis. This group of diseases is suspected to be triggered by infection or neoplasm. Certain phenotypes correlate with specific autoantibody-related neurological disorders, such as orofacial-lingual dyskinesia with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis and faciobrachial dystonic seizures with leucine-rich glioma-inactivated protein 1 encephalitis. Early diagnosis and treatment, especially for autoantibodies targeting neuronal surface antigens, can improve prognosis. In contrast, the presence of autoantibodies against intracellular neuronal agents warrants screening for underlying malignancy. However, early clinical diagnosis is challenging because these diseases can be misdiagnosed. In this article, we review the distinctive clinical phenotypes, magnetic resonance imaging findings, and current treatment options for autoimmune-mediated encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Chen Hsieh
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Medical Center, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yih-Ru Wu
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Medical Center, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung University, College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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Kamat V, Radtke JR, Hu Q, Wang W, Sweet IR, Hampe CS. Autoantibodies directed against glutamate decarboxylase interfere with glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in dispersed rat islets. Int J Exp Pathol 2022; 103:140-148. [PMID: 35246889 PMCID: PMC9264341 DOI: 10.1111/iep.12437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Islet autoantibodies, including autoantibodies directed against the 65kDa isoform of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD65Ab), are present in the majority of patients with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes (T1D). Whereas these autoantibodies are historically viewed as an epiphenomenon of the autoimmune response with no significant pathogenic function, we consider in this study the possibility that they impact the major islet function, namely glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Two human monoclonal GAD65Ab (GAD65 mAb) (b78 and b96.11) were investigated for uptake by live rat beta cells, subcellular localization and their effect on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. The GAD65 mAbs were internalized by live pancreatic beta cells, where they localized to subcellular structures in an epitope-specific manner. Importantly, GAD65 mAb b78 inhibited, while GAD65 mAb b96.11 enhanced, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). These opposite effects on GSIS rule out non-specific effects of the antibodies and suggest that internalization of the antibody leads to epitope-specific interaction with intracellular machinery regulating insulin granule release. The most likely explanation for the alteration of GSIS by GAD65 Abs is via changes in GABA release due to inhibition or change in GAD65 enzyme activity. This is the first report indicating an active role of GAD65Ab in the pathogenesis of T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varun Kamat
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Jared R Radtke
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Qingxun Hu
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Wang Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Ian R Sweet
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Christiane S Hampe
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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8
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Hampe CS, Mitoma H. A Breakdown of Immune Tolerance in the Cerebellum. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12030328. [PMID: 35326284 PMCID: PMC8946792 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12030328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar dysfunction can be associated with ataxia, dysarthria, dysmetria, nystagmus and cognitive deficits. While cerebellar dysfunction can be caused by vascular, traumatic, metabolic, genetic, inflammatory, infectious, and neoplastic events, the cerebellum is also a frequent target of autoimmune attacks. The underlying cause for this vulnerability is unclear, but it may be a result of region-specific differences in blood–brain barrier permeability, the high concentration of neurons in the cerebellum and the presence of autoantigens on Purkinje cells. An autoimmune response targeting the cerebellum—or any structure in the CNS—is typically accompanied by an influx of peripheral immune cells to the brain. Under healthy conditions, the brain is protected from the periphery by the blood–brain barrier, blood–CSF barrier, and blood–leptomeningeal barrier. Entry of immune cells to the brain for immune surveillance occurs only at the blood-CSF barrier and is strictly controlled. A breakdown in the barrier permeability allows peripheral immune cells uncontrolled access to the CNS. Often—particularly in infectious diseases—the autoimmune response develops because of molecular mimicry between the trigger and a host protein. In this review, we discuss the immune surveillance of the CNS in health and disease and also discuss specific examples of autoimmunity affecting the cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane S. Hampe
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-206-554-9181
| | - Hiroshi Mitoma
- Department of Medical Education, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan;
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Lin BC, Johal J, Sivakumar K, Romano AE, Yacoub HA. Stiff-person syndrome: an atypical presentation and a review of the literature. Hosp Pract (1995) 2021; 49:384-390. [PMID: 34313523 DOI: 10.1080/21548331.2021.1961456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Stiff-person syndrome (SPS) is a rare autoimmune neurological disorder associated with muscle rigidity and spasms. A number of antibodies have been associated with disorder, including anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase and anti-amphiphysin.Case report; In this report, we present a rare case of a 79-year-old woman who presented with bilateral lower extremity weakness who was ultimately diagnosed with stiff-limb syndrome, a rare variant of SPS. Extensive laboratory and CSF studies were unrevealing. Electromyography showed significant peroneal motor neuropathy and complex repetitive discharges in the left tibialis anterior muscle. Antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase were significantly elevated at 124 units/mL. She was subsequently started on oral diazepam with significant improvement in her symptoms.Conclusion: The presentation of SPS can vary based on epidemiologic factors, clinical symptoms, and associated disorders. These forms can have overlapping features which may make the categorization of patients into one of these forms challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin C Lin
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jaspreet Johal
- Department of Neurology, Lehigh Valley Health Network, Allentown, PA, USA
| | - Keithan Sivakumar
- Division of Neurology, Sunnybrook Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Alissa E Romano
- Department of Neurology, Lehigh Valley Health Network, Allentown, PA, USA.,Department of Neurology, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Hussam A Yacoub
- Department of Neurology, Lehigh Valley Health Network, Allentown, PA, USA.,Department of Neurology, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, USA
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10
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Lacruz Ballester L, Fernandez-Fournier M, Puertas Muñoz I, Rodriguez Fraga O, Lastras Fernandez-Escandon C, Rodriguez de Rivera Garrido FJ, Alba Suarez EM, Tallon Barranco A. Serum glutamate decarboxylase antibodies and neurological disorders: when to suspect their association? Neurol Sci 2021; 43:633-641. [PMID: 33914193 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-021-05281-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To explore different neurological manifestations with suspicion of being associated to serum glutamate decarboxylase antibodies (GAD-Abs) in order to better characterize anti-GAD neurological syndromes. METHODS Observational retrospective study including all patients for whom GAD65-Abs titers in serum were requested by the Neurology Department at La Paz University Hospital between 2015 and 2019. GAD-Abs were measured by ELISA. Demographic data, neurological symptoms, comorbidity with diabetes mellitus (DM) or with another autoimmune disease, and GAD-Abs titers were studied. Stiff-person syndrome, ataxia, encephalitis, and epilepsy were considered typical anti-GAD neurological syndromes and were compared to other atypical manifestations. RESULTS A total of 173 patients (51.7% men, mean age 51.62) were included. A progressive increase in requests of serum GAD-Abs has occurred over the last 5 years, especially in patients with atypical neurological manifestations. GAD-Abs were found in the serum of 22 patients (12.7%); of those, 15 (68.18%) suffered a typical anti-GAD syndrome. Presence of DM or another organ-specific autoimmune disease was predictive of GAD-AB seropositivity (p < 0.001). 6.6% of requested patients with an atypical syndrome had GAD-Abs, but serum levels were significantly lower than those found in patients with a typical syndrome (706.67 vs 1430.23 UI/mL; Mann-Whitney U, p = 0.034), and were finally diagnosed with another neurological disease. CONCLUSION Serum GAD-Abs were infrequently found in patients with clinical phenotypes other than those classically described as anti-GAD disorders, and with very low titers. In typical anti-GAD syndromes, there is a high comorbidity with DM and with other autoimmune diseases, and high serum GAD-Abs levels are usually present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Lacruz Ballester
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Paseo de la Castellana, 261, 28046, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Mireya Fernandez-Fournier
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Paseo de la Castellana, 261, 28046, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Puertas Muñoz
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Paseo de la Castellana, 261, 28046, Madrid, Spain
| | - Olaia Rodriguez Fraga
- Department of Clinical Analysis, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Paseo de la Castellana, 261, 28046, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Elda Maria Alba Suarez
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Paseo de la Castellana, 261, 28046, Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Tallon Barranco
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Paseo de la Castellana, 261, 28046, Madrid, Spain
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Mitoma H, Manto M, Hadjivassiliou M. Immune-Mediated Cerebellar Ataxias: Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Based on Immunological and Physiological Mechanisms. J Mov Disord 2021; 14:10-28. [PMID: 33423437 PMCID: PMC7840241 DOI: 10.14802/jmd.20040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the first description of immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias (IMCAs) by Charcot in 1868, several milestones have been reached in our understanding of this group of neurological disorders. IMCAs have diverse etiologies, such as gluten ataxia, postinfectious cerebellitis, paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome, anti-GAD ataxia, and primary autoimmune cerebellar ataxia. The cerebellum, a vulnerable autoimmune target of the nervous system, has remarkable capacities (collectively known as the cerebellar reserve, closely linked to plasticity) to compensate and restore function following various pathological insults. Therefore, good prognosis is expected when immune-mediated therapeutic interventions are delivered during early stages when the cerebellar reserve can be preserved. However, some types of IMCAs show poor responses to immunotherapies, even if such therapies are introduced at an early stage. Thus, further research is needed to enhance our understanding of the autoimmune mechanisms underlying IMCAs, as such research could potentially lead to the development of more effective immunotherapies. We underscore the need to pursue the identification of robust biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Mitoma
- Department of Medical Education, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mario Manto
- Service de Neurologie, Médiathèque Jean Jacquy, CHU-Charleroi, Charleroi, Belgium.,Service des Neurosciences, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium
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Jaafar F, Haddad L, Koleilat N, Sharara-Chami R, Shbarou R. Super refractory status epilepticus secondary to anti-GAD antibody encephalitis successfully treated with aggressive immunotherapy. Epilepsy Behav Rep 2020; 14:100396. [PMID: 33305253 PMCID: PMC7710630 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebr.2020.100396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibodies against glutamic acid decarboxylase are reported in association with a number of neurological conditions including limbic encephalitis. We report a case of anti-GAD-antibody associated encephalitis presenting with super-refractory status epilepticus. We describe the clinical course, management, and the outcome. In addition, we review the presentation and outcomes of reported cases of anti-GAD encephalitis. Similar to the reported cases of anti-GAD encephalitis, our case was refractory to treatment with conventional antiseizure medication. Treatment with intravenous immune globulin (IVIG), high dose corticosteroids, and plasmapheresis had partial response, but escalation of treatment to the use of tocilizumab was associated with significant clinical improvement.
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Key Words
- AED, antiepileptic drug
- Autoimmune encephalitis
- CSF, cerebrospinal fluid
- EEG, electroencephalogram
- GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid
- GAD, glutamic acid decarboxylase
- Glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies
- IVIG, intravenous immunoglobulin
- Limbic encephalitis
- MDZ, midazolam
- MP, methylprednisolone
- MRI, magnetic resonance imaging
- NMDA, N-methyl-d-aspartate
- PCR, polymerase chain reaction
- PLEX, plasma exchange
- RNA, ribonucleic acid
- Status epilepticus
- Tocilizumab
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Jaafar
- Division of Child Neurology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Laith Haddad
- Division of Child Neurology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Nadia Koleilat
- Division of Child Neurology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Rana Sharara-Chami
- Division of Pediatric Critical Care, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Rolla Shbarou
- Division of Child Neurology, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon
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Zhu F, Shan W, Lv R, Li Z, Wang Q. Clinical characteristics of GAD 65-associated autoimmune encephalitis. Acta Neurol Scand 2020; 142:281-293. [PMID: 32416610 DOI: 10.1111/ane.13281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To examine the clinical characteristics of autoimmune encephalitis associated with the glutamate decarboxylase 65 (GAD 65) antibody. MATERIALS AND METHODS Medical records of all patients that diagnosed with GAD 65 antibody-associated encephalitis were retrospectively analyzed. Data regarding demographics and symptoms, neurological signs, laboratory and imaging results, treatment and prognosis were collected. RESULTS We collected a total of seven patients, mainly young or middle-aged women with a subacute or chronic course. The main clinical symptoms mainly included chronic epilepsy, cerebellar ataxia, stiff-person syndrome, and limbic encephalitis. Three of seven (43%) patients had high CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) protein levels. Oligoclonal IgG bands (including IgG 1) and 24 hours intrathecal synthesis of IgG were detected in CSF and serum in six patients, five patients (83%) reported increased distribution of oligoclonal IgG bands (including IgG 1) and 24 hours intrathecal synthesis of IgG in serum and CSF. And six of seven patients (86%) had abnormal thyroid function or were positive for thyroid antibodies. By electroencephalogram examination, sharp or slow waves in the temporal region were often observed for six of seven patients (86%). Abnormal imaging signals (six of seven patients, 86%) of the temporal lobe and hippocampus were detected by brain magnetic resonance imaging, and decreased metabolism of the temporal lobe was detected by positron emission tomography/computed tomography (six of six patients, 100%). These patients were mainly treated with corticosteroid and gamma globulin. The clinical symptoms of the patients were alleviated. CONCLUSIONS The course of GAD 65 antibody-associated encephalitis is longer than other autoimmune encephalitides. The clinical symptoms of GAD 65 autoimmune encephalitis mainly manifested as chronic epilepsy, cerebellar ataxia, stiff-person syndrome, and limbic encephalitis, and combined with or without thyroid autoimmune diseases, type 1 diabetes, and thymoma. A comprehensive understanding of the disease is a way to prevent misdiagnosis and delayed treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Zhu
- Department of Neurology Beijing Tiantan Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases Beijing China
| | - Wei Shan
- Department of Neurology Beijing Tiantan Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases Beijing China
- Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders Beijing China
| | - Ruijuan Lv
- Department of Neurology Beijing Tiantan Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases Beijing China
| | - Zhimei Li
- Department of Neurology Beijing Tiantan Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases Beijing China
| | - Qun Wang
- Department of Neurology Beijing Tiantan Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases Beijing China
- Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders Beijing China
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Fundamental Mechanisms of Autoantibody-Induced Impairments on Ion Channels and Synapses in Immune-Mediated Cerebellar Ataxias. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21144936. [PMID: 32668612 PMCID: PMC7404345 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21144936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last years, different kinds of limbic encephalitis associated with autoantibodies against ion channels and synaptic receptors have been described. Many studies have demonstrated that such autoantibodies induce channel or receptor dysfunction. The same mechanism is discussed in immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias (IMCAs), but the pathogenesis has been less investigated. The aim of the present review is to evaluate what kind of cerebellar ion channels, their related proteins, and the synaptic machinery proteins that are preferably impaired by autoantibodies so as to develop cerebellar ataxias (CAs). The cerebellum predictively coordinates motor and cognitive functions through a continuous update of an internal model. These controls are relayed by cerebellum-specific functions such as precise neuronal discharges with potassium channels, synaptic plasticity through calcium signaling pathways coupled with voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCC) and metabotropic glutamate receptors 1 (mGluR1), a synaptic organization with glutamate receptor delta (GluRδ), and output signal formation through chained GABAergic neurons. Consistently, the association of CAs with anti-potassium channel-related proteins, anti-VGCC, anti-mGluR1, and GluRδ, and anti-glutamate decarboxylase 65 antibodies is observed in IMCAs. Despite ample distributions of AMPA and GABA receptors, however, CAs are rare in conditions with autoantibodies against these receptors. Notably, when the autoantibodies impair synaptic transmission, the autoimmune targets are commonly classified into three categories: release machinery proteins, synaptic adhesion molecules, and receptors. This physiopathological categorization impacts on both our understanding of the pathophysiology and clinical prognosis.
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Glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies in neurocritical patients: a culprit or a bystander? Neurol Sci 2020; 41:3691-3696. [PMID: 32514855 PMCID: PMC7278224 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-020-04466-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Background Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) is an intracellular enzyme, which is widely expressed in central nervous system (CNS), pancreas, and other organs. GAD antibodies (GAD-Abs) are linked to various neurological disorders. However, the significance of GAD-Abs in neurocritical patients is undetermined. Materials and methods Patients with serologically positive GAD-Abs and requiring neurocritical care were included. The clinical, laboratory, and outcome data were retrospectively collected. Results We included 9 patients with serologically positive GAD-Abs. Clinical manifestations involved both CNS and peripheral nervous system (PNS). Six (66.7%) patients had other specific autoimmune antibodies. Non-specific autoimmune responses were observed in 8 (88.9%) patients. All patients clinically responded well to immunotherapy. The titers of GAD-Abs decreased in 7 (77.8%) patients but remained unchanged in the other 2 patients. One (11.1%) patient awoke before the negative conversion of GAD-Abs, and 3 (33.3%) patients remained unconscious and/or under mechanical ventilation for several weeks after the vanishing of GAD-Abs. Conclusions Most neurocritical patients with serologically positive GAD-Abs had other specific autoimmune antibodies. All patients responded well to immunotherapy, but not parallel to the titers of GAD-Abs. These results indicated that GAD-Abs might be more a bystander than a culprit in neurocritical patients, suggesting that an underlying autoimmune disease should be explored.
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16
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Graus F, Saiz A, Dalmau J. GAD antibodies in neurological disorders — insights and challenges. Nat Rev Neurol 2020; 16:353-365. [DOI: 10.1038/s41582-020-0359-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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17
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Immune-mediated epilepsy with GAD65 antibodies. J Neuroimmunol 2020; 341:577189. [PMID: 32087461 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2020.577189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Anti-GAD65 antibodies have been identified in both acute/subacute seizures (limbic encephalitis and extralimbic encephalitis) and chronic isolated epilepsy. The evidence of high serum titers and intrathecal synthesis play a fundamental role in diagnosis but poorly correlate with disease severity or response to therapies. It remains controversial whether anti-GAD65 Abs are the pathogenic entity or only serve as a surrogate marker for autoimmune disorders mediated by cytotoxic T cells. Unlike other immune-mediated epilepsy, although multiple combinations of therapeutics are used, the efficacy and prognosis of patients with GAD65-epilepsy patients are poor. Besides, GAD65-epilepsy is more prone to relapse and potentially evolve into a more widespread CNS inflammatory disorder. This article reviews the recent advances of GAD65-epilepsy, focusing on the diagnosis, epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, and treatment, to better promote the recognition and provide proper therapy for this condition.
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Sriwastava S, Srinivas M, Kanna A, Yarraguntla K, Jowkar A, George E. Anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody (GAD) syndromes may have more aggressive disease course in African Americans and early onset of presentation compare to Caucasians group. eNeurologicalSci 2019; 17:100208. [PMID: 31646204 PMCID: PMC6804399 DOI: 10.1016/j.ensci.2019.100208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Anti-Glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies (GAD) are increasingly diagnosed in the clinic and this antibody related syndromes can manifest commonly as autoimmune encephalitis, Stiff person syndrome and cerebellar ataxia. However, it is unclear if the race has role in age of incidence, presentation and severity of symptoms of anti-GAD associated conditions. In our cohort of 40 patients who were anti-GAD positive, we observed that the age at which the anti-GAD titers turned out to be positive was significantly lower in African Americans (AA) compared to Caucasians (Cau) irrespective of the type of conditions. However, the age at symptoms onset didn't differ significantly different between these groups. Furthermore, AA anti-GAD positive patients had seizures as their initial presentation that was significantly higher in incidence compared to Cau indicating that AA have more aggressive form of autoimmune phenomenon for reasons unknown. Future studies to explore the variations in autoimmune process and their phenotypes may aid in understanding anti-GAD syndromes differently between these racial groups.
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Manto M, Mitoma H, Hampe CS. Anti-GAD Antibodies and the Cerebellum: Where Do We Stand? THE CEREBELLUM 2019; 18:153-156. [PMID: 30343467 PMCID: PMC6443918 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-018-0986-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Anti-GAD65 antibodies (anti-GAD65 Abs) are associated with cerebellar ataxia (CA). The significance of anti-GAD65 Abs has been a focus of debates. Since GAD65 is intracellularly located and associated with type 1 diabetes mellitus and different clinical neurological phenotypes such as CA, stiff-person syndrome, and epilepsy, some researchers have argued that anti-GAD65 Abs have no pathogenic roles. On the other hand, recent physiological studies in vitro and in vivo have elucidated that binding of GAD65 by anti-GAD65 Abs elicits loss of GAD65 functions pertaining GABA release with an epitope dependence, leading to the development of CA. Internalization of autoantibodies has been also clarified. These studies provide substantial evidence of the pathogenesis of anti-GAD65 Abs in CA. We also discuss methodological problems in the identification of anti-GAD65 Abs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Manto
- Service de Neurologie, Médiathèque Jean Jacquy, CHU-Charleroi, 6000, Charleroi, Belgium.,Service des Neurosciences, University of Mons, 7000, Mons, Belgium
| | - Hiroshi Mitoma
- Medical Education Promotion Center, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan.
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20
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Baizabal-Carvallo JF. The neurological syndromes associated with glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies. J Autoimmun 2019; 101:35-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Revised: 04/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Mitoma H, Manto M, Hampe CS. Immune-mediated Cerebellar Ataxias: Practical Guidelines and Therapeutic Challenges. Curr Neuropharmacol 2019; 17:33-58. [PMID: 30221603 PMCID: PMC6341499 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x16666180917105033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2018] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias (IMCAs), a clinical entity reported for the first time in the 1980s, include gluten ataxia (GA), paraneoplastic cerebellar degenerations (PCDs), antiglutamate decarboxylase 65 (GAD) antibody-associated cerebellar ataxia, post-infectious cerebellitis, and opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome (OMS). These IMCAs share common features with regard to therapeutic approaches. When certain factors trigger immune processes, elimination of the antigen( s) becomes a priority: e.g., gluten-free diet in GA and surgical excision of the primary tumor in PCDs. Furthermore, various immunotherapeutic modalities (e.g., steroids, immunoglobulins, plasmapheresis, immunosuppressants, rituximab) should be considered alone or in combination to prevent the progression of the IMCAs. There is no evidence of significant differences in terms of response and prognosis among the various types of immunotherapies. Treatment introduced at an early stage, when CAs or cerebellar atrophy is mild, is associated with better prognosis. Preservation of the "cerebellar reserve" is necessary for the improvement of CAs and resilience of the cerebellar networks. In this regard, we emphasize the therapeutic principle of "Time is Cerebellum" in IMCAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Mitoma
- Address correspondence to this author at the Medical Education Promotion Center, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan;, E-mail:
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22
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Honnorat J, Joubert B. Movement disorders in autoimmune encephalitis and paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2018; 174:597-607. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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23
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Antiglutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65) antibody-associated epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2018; 80:331-336. [PMID: 29433947 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) antibody-associated encephalitis causes both acute seizures and chronic epilepsy with predominantly temporal lobe onset. This condition is challenging in diagnosis and management, and the incidence of GAD antibody (Ab)-related epilepsy could be much higher than commonly believed. Imaging and CSF evidence of inflammation along with typical clinical presentations, such as adult onset temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) with unexplained etiology, should prompt testing for the diagnostic antibodies. High serum GAD Ab titer (≥2000U/mL or ≥20nmol/L) and evidence of intrathecal anti-GAD Ab synthesis support the diagnosis. Unlike other immune-mediated epilepsies, antiglutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65) antibody-mediated epilepsy is often poorly responsive to antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and only moderately responsive to immune therapy with steroids, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), or plasma exchange (PLEX). Long-term treatment with more aggressive immunosuppressants such as rituximab (RTX) and/or cyclophosphamide is often necessary and may be more effective than current immunosuppressive approaches. The aim of this review is to review the physiology, pathology, clinical presentation, related ancillary tests, and management of GAD Ab-associated autoimmune epilepsy by searching the keywords and to promote the recognition and the initiation of proper therapy for this condition.
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Abstract
Immune-mediated cerebellar ataxia (CA) comprises a group of rare diseases that are still incompletely described, and are probably underdiagnosed. Both acute and progressive progressions are possible. Different syndromes have been identified, including CA associated with anti-GAD antibodies, the cerebellar type of Hashimoto encephalopathy, primary autoimmune CA, gluten ataxia, opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome, and paraneoplastic cerebellar degenerations. Most of these syndromes are associated with autoantibodies targeting neuronal antigens. Additionally, autoimmune CA can be triggered by infections, especially in children, and in rare cases occur in the context of an autoimmune multisystem disease, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, sarcoidosis, or Behçet disease. A careful workup is needed to distinguish autoimmune CA from other causes. In adults, a paraneoplastic origin must be ruled out, especially in cases with subacute onset. Neurologic outcome in adults is frequently poor, and optimal therapeutic strategies remain ill defined. The outcome in children is in general good, but children with a poor recovery are on record. The precise pathophysiologic mechanisms even in the presence of detectable autoantibodies are still largely unknown. Further research is needed on both the clinical and mechanistic aspects of immune-mediated CA, and to determine optimal therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastien Joubert
- French Reference Centre for Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndromes, Lyon Neurological Hospital, Lyon, France; Institut NeuroMyoGene, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Kevin Rostásy
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Witten/Herdecke University, Children's Hospital Datteln, Datteln, Germany
| | - Jérôme Honnorat
- French Reference Centre for Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndromes, Lyon Neurological Hospital, Lyon, France; Institut NeuroMyoGene, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France.
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25
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Balint B, Vincent A, Meinck HM, Irani SR, Bhatia KP. Movement disorders with neuronal antibodies: syndromic approach, genetic parallels and pathophysiology. Brain 2018; 141:13-36. [PMID: 29053777 PMCID: PMC5888977 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awx189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Movement disorders are a prominent and common feature in many autoantibody-associated neurological diseases, a group of potentially treatable conditions that can mimic infectious, metabolic or neurodegenerative disease. Certain movement disorders are likely to associate with certain autoantibodies; for example, the characteristic dyskinesias, chorea and dystonia associated with NMDAR antibodies, stiff person spectrum disorders with GAD, glycine receptor, amphiphysin or DPPX antibodies, specific paroxysmal dystonias with LGI1 antibodies, and cerebellar ataxia with various anti-neuronal antibodies. There are also less-recognized movement disorder presentations of antibody-related disease, and a considerable overlap between the clinical phenotypes and the associated antibody spectra. In this review, we first describe the antibodies associated with each syndrome, highlight distinctive clinical or radiological 'red flags', and suggest a syndromic approach based on the predominant movement disorder presentation, age, and associated features. We then examine the underlying immunopathophysiology, which may guide treatment decisions in these neuroimmunological disorders, and highlight the exceptional interface between neuronal antibodies and neurodegeneration, such as the tauopathy associated with IgLON5 antibodies. Moreover, we elaborate the emerging pathophysiological parallels between genetic movement disorders and immunological conditions, with proteins being either affected by mutations or targeted by autoantibodies. Hereditary hyperekplexia, for example, is caused by mutations of the alpha subunit of the glycine receptor leading to an infantile-onset disorder with exaggerated startle and stiffness, whereas antibodies targeting glycine receptors can induce acquired hyperekplexia. The spectrum of such immunological and genetic analogies also includes cerebellar ataxias and some encephalopathies. Lastly, we discuss how these pathophysiological considerations could reflect on possible future directions regarding antigen-specific immunotherapies or targeting the pathophysiological cascades downstream of the antibody effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Balint
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- Neuroimmunology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | - Angela Vincent
- Neuroimmunology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Sarosh R Irani
- Neuroimmunology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | - Kailash P Bhatia
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
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Manto M, Hampe CS. Endocrine disorders and the cerebellum: from neurodevelopmental injury to late-onset ataxia. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2018; 155:353-368. [PMID: 29891071 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64189-2.00023-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Hormonal disorders are a source of cerebellar ataxia in both children and adults. Normal development of the cerebellum is critically dependent on thyroid hormone, which crosses both the blood-brain barrier and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier thanks to specific transporters, including monocarboxylate transporter 8 and the organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1C1. In particular, growth and dendritic arborization of Purkinje neurons, synaptogenesis, and myelination are dependent on thyroid hormone. Disturbances of thyroid hormone may also impact on cerebellar ataxias of other origin, decompensating or aggravating the pre-existing ataxia manifesting with motor ataxia, oculomotor ataxia, and/or Schmahmann syndrome. Parathyroid disorders are associated with a genuine cerebellar syndrome, but symptoms may be subtle. The main conditions combining diabetes and cerebellar ataxia are Friedreich ataxia, ataxia associated with anti-GAD antibodies, autoimmune polyglandular syndromes, aceruloplasminemia, and cerebellar ataxia associated with hypogonadism (especially Holmes ataxia/Boucher-Neuhäuser syndrome). The general workup of cerebellar disorders should include the evaluation of hormonal status, including thyroid-stimulating hormone and free thyroxine levels, and hormonal replacement should be considered depending on the laboratory results. Cerebellar deficits may be reversible in some cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Manto
- Neurology Service, CHU-Charleroi, Charleroi, Belgium; Neuroscience Service, Université de Mons, Mons, Belgium.
| | - Christiane S Hampe
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, United States
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27
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Mitoma H, Manto M, Hampe CS. Immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias: from bench to bedside. CEREBELLUM & ATAXIAS 2017; 4:16. [PMID: 28944066 PMCID: PMC5609024 DOI: 10.1186/s40673-017-0073-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The cerebellum is a vulnerable target of autoimmunity in the CNS. The category of immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias (IMCAs) was recently established, and includes in particular paraneoplastic cerebellar degenerations (PCDs), gluten ataxia (GA) and anti-GAD65 antibody (Ab) associated-CA, all characterized by the presence of autoantibodies. The significance of onconeuronal autoantibodies remains uncertain in some cases. The pathogenic role of anti-GAD65Ab has been established both in vitro and in vivo, but a consensus has not been reached yet. Recent studies of anti-GAD65 Ab-associated CA have clarified that (1) autoantibodies are generally polyclonal and elicit pathogenic effects related to epitope specificity, and (2) the clinical course can be divided into two phases: a phase of functional disorder followed by cell death. These features provide the rationale for prompt diagnosis and therapeutic strategies. The concept “Time is brain” has been completely underestimated in the field of immune ataxias. We now put forward the concept “Time is cerebellum” to underline the importance of very early therapeutic strategies in order to prevent or stop the loss of neurons and synapses. The diagnosis of IMCAs should depend not only on Ab testing, but rather on a rapid and comprehensive assessment of the clinical/immune profile. Treatment should be applied during the period of preserved cerebellar reserve, and should encompass early removal of the conditions (such as remote primary tumors) or diseases that trigger the autoimmunity, followed by the combinations of various immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Mitoma
- Tokyo Medical University, Medical Education Promotion Center, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjyuku, Shinjyuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-0023 Japan
| | - Mario Manto
- Unité d'Etude du Mouvement (UEM), FNRS, ULB-Erasme, 1070 Bruxelles, Belgium.,Service des Neurosciences, University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium
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Baizabal-Carvallo JF, Alonso-Juarez M. Cerebellar disease associated with anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies: review. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2017; 124:1171-1182. [PMID: 28689294 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-017-1754-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Several neurological syndromes have been recognized associated to GAD antibodies. Among those disorders, cerebellar ataxia (CA) is one of the most common, along with stiff-person syndrome. Patients with GAD associated CA present with a progressive pancerebellar syndrome, with a subacute or chronic evolution, along with other neurological manifestations such as stiffness, oculomotor dysfunction, epilepsy, and cognitive dysfunction. These symptoms may be preceded by the so-called "brainstem attacks", where manifestations consistent with transient dysfunction of the brainstem may be observed. These patients frequently have extra-neurologic autoimmune manifestations such as diabetes mellitus type 1, polyendocrine autoimmune syndrome, pernicious anemia, vitiligo, etc. A proportion of patients may present with an underlying neoplasia, but the course is less aggressive than in those patients with classical paraneoplastic CA with onconeural antibodies. The diagnosis is based on the present of high serum and CSF titers of GAD antibodies, with intrathecal production of such antibodies. Treatment is aimed to decrease the immunological response with intravenous immunoglobulin, steroids, rituximab and oral immunosuppressive drugs. A subacute presentation and rapid initiation of immunotherapy seem to be the predictors of a favorable clinical response.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Fidel Baizabal-Carvallo
- Department of Neurology, Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Guanajuato, 20 de Enero no. 927, C.P. 37320, León, Guanajuato, Mexico.
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Pathogenic Roles of Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase 65 Autoantibodies in Cerebellar Ataxias. J Immunol Res 2017; 2017:2913297. [PMID: 28386570 PMCID: PMC5366212 DOI: 10.1155/2017/2913297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Reports suggesting a pathogenic role of autoantibodies directed against glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65Abs) in cerebellar ataxias (CAs) are reviewed, and debatable issues such as internalization of antibodies by neurons and roles of epitopes are discussed. GAD65 is one of two enzymes that catalyze the conversion of glutamate to the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). A pathogenic role of GAD65Ab in CAs is suggested by in vivo and in vitro studies. (1) Intracerebellar administration of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) immunoglobulins (IgGs) obtained from GAD65Ab-positive CA patients impairs cerebellar modulation of motor control in rats. (2) CSF IgGs act on terminals of GABAergic neurons and decrease the release of GABA in cerebellar slices from rats and mice. (3) Absorption of GAD65Ab by recombinant GAD65 diminishes the above effects, and monoclonal human GAD65Ab (b78) mimic the effects of CSF IgGs in vivo and in vitro. Studies using GAD65-KO mice confirm that the target molecule is GAD65. (4) Notably, the effects of GAD65Ab depend on the epitope specificity of the monoclonal GAD65Ab. Taken together, these results indicate that epitope-specific GAD65Ab-induced impairment of GABA release is involved in the pathogenesis of GAD65Ab-positive CA and support the early detection of GAD65Ab-associated CA to initiate immunotherapy before irreversible neuronal death in the cerebellum.
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Sinmaz N, Nguyen T, Tea F, Dale RC, Brilot F. Mapping autoantigen epitopes: molecular insights into autoantibody-associated disorders of the nervous system. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:219. [PMID: 27577085 PMCID: PMC5006540 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0678-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our knowledge of autoantibody-associated diseases of the central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS) nervous systems has expanded greatly over the recent years. A number of extracellular and intracellular autoantigens have been identified, and there is no doubt that this field will continue to expand as more autoantigens are discovered as a result of improved clinical awareness and methodological practice. In recent years, interest has shifted to uncover the target epitopes of these autoantibodies. MAIN BODY The purpose of this review is to discuss the mapping of the epitope targets of autoantibodies in CNS and PNS antibody-mediated disorders, such as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR), leucine-rich glioma-inactivated protein 1 (Lgi1), contactin-associated protein-like 2 (Caspr2), myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), aquaporin-4 (AQP4), 65 kDa glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65), acetylcholine receptor (AChR), muscle-specific kinase (MuSK), voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC), neurofascin (NF), and contactin. We also address the methods used to analyze these epitopes, the relevance of their determination, and how this knowledge can inform studies on autoantibody pathogenicity. Furthermore, we discuss triggers of autoimmunity, such as molecular mimicry, ectopic antigen expression, epitope spreading, and potential mechanisms for the rising number of double autoantibody-positive patients. CONCLUSIONS Molecular insights into specificity and role of autoantibodies will likely improve diagnosis and treatment of CNS and PNS neuroimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nese Sinmaz
- Brain Autoimmunity Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, The Kids Research Institute at the Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Locked Bag 4001, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Tina Nguyen
- Brain Autoimmunity Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, The Kids Research Institute at the Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Locked Bag 4001, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Fiona Tea
- Brain Autoimmunity Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, The Kids Research Institute at the Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Locked Bag 4001, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Russell C Dale
- Brain Autoimmunity Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, The Kids Research Institute at the Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Locked Bag 4001, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia
- Discipline of Child and Adolescent Health, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Fabienne Brilot
- Brain Autoimmunity Group, Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, The Kids Research Institute at the Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Locked Bag 4001, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia.
- Discipline of Child and Adolescent Health, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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Mitoma H, Adhikari K, Aeschlimann D, Chattopadhyay P, Hadjivassiliou M, Hampe CS, Honnorat J, Joubert B, Kakei S, Lee J, Manto M, Matsunaga A, Mizusawa H, Nanri K, Shanmugarajah P, Yoneda M, Yuki N. Consensus Paper: Neuroimmune Mechanisms of Cerebellar Ataxias. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2016; 15:213-32. [PMID: 25823827 PMCID: PMC4591117 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-015-0664-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In the last few years, a lot of publications suggested that disabling cerebellar ataxias may develop through immune-mediated mechanisms. In this consensus paper, we discuss the clinical features of the main described immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias and address their presumed pathogenesis. Immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias include cerebellar ataxia associated with anti-GAD antibodies, the cerebellar type of Hashimoto's encephalopathy, primary autoimmune cerebellar ataxia, gluten ataxia, Miller Fisher syndrome, ataxia associated with systemic lupus erythematosus, and paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. Humoral mechanisms, cell-mediated immunity, inflammation, and vascular injuries contribute to the cerebellar deficits in immune-mediated cerebellar ataxias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Mitoma
- Department of Medical Education, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Keya Adhikari
- Department of Haematology, Nil Ratan Sircar Medical College, 138 A J C Bose Road, Kolkata, 700014, West Bengal, India
| | - Daniel Aeschlimann
- Matrix Biology &Tissue Repair Research Unit, School of Dentistry, College of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK
| | - Partha Chattopadhyay
- Department of General Medicine, College of Medicine & Sagore Dutta Hospital, 578 B T Road, Kamarhati-Kolkata, 700056, West Bengal, India
| | | | - Christiane S Hampe
- School of Medicine, University of Washington, 850 Republication, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Jérôme Honnorat
- University Lyon 1, University Lyon, Rue Guillaume Paradin, 69372, Lyon Cedex 08, France
- INSERM, UMR-S1028, CNRS, UMR-5292, Neuro-Oncology and Neuro-Inflammation Team, 7, Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, Rue Guillaume Paradin, 69372, Lyon Cedex 08, France
- National Reference Centre for Paraneoplastic Neurological Diseases, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Neurologique, 69677, Bron, France
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Neuro-oncology, Hôpital Neurologique, 69677, Bron, France
| | - Bastien Joubert
- University Lyon 1, University Lyon, Rue Guillaume Paradin, 69372, Lyon Cedex 08, France
- INSERM, UMR-S1028, CNRS, UMR-5292, Neuro-Oncology and Neuro-Inflammation Team, 7, Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, Rue Guillaume Paradin, 69372, Lyon Cedex 08, France
| | - Shinji Kakei
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jongho Lee
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mario Manto
- Unité d'Etude du Mouvement, FNRS, Neurologie ULB-Erasme, 808 Route de Lennik, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Akiko Matsunaga
- Department of Neurology, University of Fukui Hospital, Fukui, Japan
| | | | - Kazunori Nanri
- Department of Neurology, Tokyo Medical University Hachioji Medical Center, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Priya Shanmugarajah
- Academic Department of Neurosciences, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield, UK
| | - Makoto Yoneda
- Faculty of Nursing and Social Welfare Sciences, Fukui Prefectural University, Fukui, Japan
| | - Nobuhiro Yuki
- Departments of Medicine and Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Laricchiuta D, Cavallucci V, Cutuli D, De Bartolo P, Caporali P, Foti F, Finke C, D'Amelio M, Manto M, Petrosini L. Effects of Anti-NMDA Antibodies on Functional Recovery and Synaptic Rearrangement Following Hemicerebellectomy. Neuromolecular Med 2016; 18:190-202. [PMID: 27027521 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-016-8390-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The compensation that follows cerebellar lesions is based on synaptic modifications in many cortical and subcortical regions, although its cellular mechanisms are still unclear. Changes in glutamatergic receptor expression may represent the synaptic basis of the compensated state. We analyzed in rats the involvement of glutamatergic system of the cerebello-frontal network in the compensation following a right hemicerebellectomy. We evaluated motor performances, spatial competencies and molecular correlates in compensated hemicerebellectomized rats which in the frontal cortex contralateral to the hemicerebellectomy side received injections of anti-NMDA antibodies from patients affected by anti-NMDA encephalitis. In the compensated hemicerebellectomized rats, the frontal injections of anti-NMDA antibodies elicited a marked decompensation state characterized by slight worsening of the motor symptoms as well as severe impairment of spatial mnesic and procedural performances. Conversely, in the sham-operated group the frontal injections of anti-NMDA antibodies elicited slight motor and spatial impairment. The molecular analyses indicated that cerebellar compensatory processes were related to a relevant rearrangement of glutamatergic synapses (NMDA and AMPA receptors and other glutamatergic components) along the entire cortico-cerebellar network. The long-term maintenance of the rearranged glutamatergic activity plays a crucial role in the maintenance of recovered function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Laricchiuta
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University "Sapienza" of Rome, via dei Marsi 78, 00185, Rome, Italy. .,IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143, Rome, Italy.
| | - Virve Cavallucci
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143, Rome, Italy
| | - Debora Cutuli
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University "Sapienza" of Rome, via dei Marsi 78, 00185, Rome, Italy.,IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143, Rome, Italy
| | - Paola De Bartolo
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143, Rome, Italy.,Department of Sociological and Psychopedagogical Studies, University "Guglielmo Marconi" of Rome, Via Plinio 44, 00193, Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Caporali
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University "Sapienza" of Rome, via dei Marsi 78, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Foti
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University "Sapienza" of Rome, via dei Marsi 78, 00185, Rome, Italy.,IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143, Rome, Italy
| | - Carsten Finke
- Department of Neurology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcello D'Amelio
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143, Rome, Italy.,Department of Medicine, University Campus-Biomedico, Via Alvaro del Portillo 21, 00128, Rome, Italy
| | - Mario Manto
- Unité d'Etude du Mouvement, FNRS Neurologie, ULB Erasme, 808 Route de Lennik, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Laura Petrosini
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University "Sapienza" of Rome, via dei Marsi 78, 00185, Rome, Italy.,IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143, Rome, Italy
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Chefdeville A, Honnorat J, Hampe CS, Desestret V. Neuronal central nervous system syndromes probably mediated by autoantibodies. Eur J Neurosci 2016; 43:1535-52. [PMID: 26918657 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2015] [Revised: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
In the last few years, a rapidly growing number of autoantibodies targeting neuronal cell-surface antigens have been identified in patients presenting with neurological symptoms. Targeted antigens include ionotropic receptors such as N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor or the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor, metabotropic receptors such as mGluR1 and mGluR5, and other synaptic proteins, some of them belonging to the voltage-gated potassium channel complex. Importantly, the cell-surface location of these antigens makes them vulnerable to direct antibody-mediated modulation. Some of these autoantibodies, generally targeting ionotropic channels or their partner proteins, define clinical syndromes resembling models of pharmacological or genetic disruption of the corresponding antigen, suggesting a direct pathogenic role of the associated autoantibodies. Moreover, the associated neurological symptoms are usually immunotherapy-responsive, further arguing for a pathogenic effect of the antibodies. Some studies have shown that some patients' antibodies may have structural and functional in vitro effects on the targeted antigens. Definite proof of the pathogenicity of these autoantibodies has been obtained for just a few through passive transfer experiments in animal models. In this review we present existing and converging evidence suggesting a pathogenic role of some autoantibodies directed against neuronal cell-surface antigens observed in patients with central nervous system disorders. We describe the main clinical symptoms characterizing the patients and discuss conflicting arguments regarding the pathogenicity of these antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aude Chefdeville
- Institut NeuroMyoGène, INSERM U1217/UMR CNRS 5310, Lyon, France.,Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Jérôme Honnorat
- Institut NeuroMyoGène, INSERM U1217/UMR CNRS 5310, Lyon, France.,Université de Lyon, Lyon, France.,French Reference Center on Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndrome, F-69677, Bron, France.,Department of Neurology, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Neurologique, F-69677, Bron, France
| | | | - Virginie Desestret
- Institut NeuroMyoGène, INSERM U1217/UMR CNRS 5310, Lyon, France.,Université de Lyon, Lyon, France.,French Reference Center on Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndrome, F-69677, Bron, France.,Department of Neurology, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Neurologique, F-69677, Bron, France
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35
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Baizabal-Carvallo JF, Jankovic J. Stiff-person syndrome: insights into a complex autoimmune disorder. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2015; 86:840-8. [PMID: 25511790 DOI: 10.1136/jnnp-2014-309201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Stiff-person syndrome (SPS) is characterised by progressive rigidity and muscle spasms affecting the axial and limb muscles. Since its initial description in 1956, marked progress has been made in the clinical characterisation, understanding of pathogenesis and therapy of this disorder. SPS can be classified according to the clinical presentation into classic SPS and SPS variants: focal or segmental-SPS, jerking-SPS and progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus. Most patients with SPS have antibodies directed against the glutamic acid decarboxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme for the production of the inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Antibodies directed against GABA(A) receptor-associated protein, and the glycine-α1 receptor can also be observed. Paraneoplastic SPS is commonly associated with antiamphiphysin antibodies and breast cancer. Treatment of SPS with drugs that increase the GABAergic tone combined with immunotherapy can improve the neurological manifestations of these patients. The prognosis, however, is unpredictable and spontaneous remissions are unlikely.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Fidel Baizabal-Carvallo
- Department of Neurology, Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Joseph Jankovic
- Department of Neurology, Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
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36
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Manto M, Honnorat J, Hampe CS, Guerra-Narbona R, López-Ramos JC, Delgado-García JM, Saitow F, Suzuki H, Yanagawa Y, Mizusawa H, Mitoma H. Disease-specific monoclonal antibodies targeting glutamate decarboxylase impair GABAergic neurotransmission and affect motor learning and behavioral functions. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:78. [PMID: 25870548 PMCID: PMC4375997 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Autoantibodies to the smaller isoform of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) can be found in patients with type 1 diabetes and a number of neurological disorders, including stiff-person syndrome, cerebellar ataxia and limbic encephalitis. The detection of disease-specific autoantibody epitopes led to the hypothesis that distinct GAD autoantibodies may elicit specific neurological phenotypes. We explored the in vitro/in vivo effects of well-characterized monoclonal GAD antibodies. We found that GAD autoantibodies present in patients with stiff person syndrome (n = 7) and cerebellar ataxia (n = 15) recognized an epitope distinct from that recognized by GAD autoantibodies present in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (n = 10) or limbic encephalitis (n = 4). We demonstrated that the administration of a monoclonal GAD antibody representing this epitope specificity; (1) disrupted in vitro the association of GAD with γ-Aminobutyric acid containing synaptic vesicles; (2) depressed the inhibitory synaptic transmission in cerebellar slices with a gradual time course and a lasting suppressive effect; (3) significantly decreased conditioned eyelid responses evoked in mice, with no modification of learning curves in the classical eyeblink-conditioning task; (4) markedly impaired the facilitatory effect exerted by the premotor cortex over the motor cortex in a paired-pulse stimulation paradigm; and (5) induced decreased exploratory behavior and impaired locomotor function in rats. These findings support the specific targeting of GAD by its autoantibodies in the pathogenesis of stiff-person syndrome and cerebellar ataxia. Therapies of these disorders based on selective removal of such GAD antibodies could be envisioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Manto
- Unité d'Etude du Mouvement, FNRS Neurologie, ULB Erasme Brussels, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Fumihito Saitow
- Department of Pharmacology, Nippon Medical School Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hidenori Suzuki
- Department of Pharmacology, Nippon Medical School Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuchio Yanagawa
- Department of Genetic and Behavioral Neuroscience, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine and JST, CREST, Maebashi City Gunma, Japan
| | | | - Hiroshi Mitoma
- Department of Medical Education, Tokyo Medical University Tokyo, Japan
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Gresa-Arribas N, Ariño H, Martínez-Hernández E, Petit-Pedrol M, Sabater L, Saiz A, Dalmau J, Graus F. Antibodies to inhibitory synaptic proteins in neurological syndromes associated with glutamic acid decarboxylase autoimmunity. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0121364. [PMID: 25774787 PMCID: PMC4361655 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD-ab) associate to different neurological syndromes. It is unknown if the diversity in syndrome association represents epitopes in different immunodominant domains or co-existence of antibodies to other proteins of the inhibitory synapsis. We examined the serum and CSF of 106 patients with anti-GAD related syndromes (39 cerebellar ataxia, 32 stiff-person syndrome [SPS], 18 epilepsy, and 17 limbic encephalitis [LE]). GAD65-ab titres were quantified by ELISA. Immunoblot was used to determine if the antibody-targeted epitopes of GAD65 and GAD67 were linear. A cell-based assay (CBA) with HEK293 cells expressing the GAD65 N-terminal, central catalytic domain, or C-terminal was used to investigate the immunodominant domains. Antibodies to GAD67, gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptor (GABAaR), glycine receptor (GlyR), GABAaR-associated protein (GABARAP), and gephyrin were determined with CBA. GAD-ab internalization was investigated using cultured rat hippocampal neurons. CSF GAD65-ab titres were higher in patients with cerebellar ataxia and LE compared to those with SPS (p = 0.02). GAD67-ab were identified in 81% of sera and 100% of CSF. GAD65-ab recognized linear epitopes in 98% of the patients and GAD67-ab in 42% (p<0.001). The GAD65 catalytic domain was recognized by 93% of sera, and the three domains by 22% of sera and 74% of CSF (p<0.001). Six patients had GABAaR-ab and another 6 had GlyR-ab without association to distinctive symptoms. None of the patients had gephyrin- or GABARAP-ab. GAD65-ab were not internalized by live neurons. Overall, these findings show that regardless of the neurological syndrome, the CSF immune response against GAD is more widespread than that of the serum and that there is no specific association between clinical phenotype and the presence of antibodies against other proteins of the inhibitory synapsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Gresa-Arribas
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Helena Ariño
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Service of Neurology, Hospital Clinic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eugenia Martínez-Hernández
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Service of Neurology, Hospital Clinic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mar Petit-Pedrol
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lidia Sabater
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Saiz
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Service of Neurology, Hospital Clinic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Dalmau
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Francesc Graus
- Neuroimmunology Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
- Service of Neurology, Hospital Clinic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Laricchiuta D, Petrosini L. Individual differences in response to positive and negative stimuli: endocannabinoid-based insight on approach and avoidance behaviors. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:238. [PMID: 25565991 PMCID: PMC4273613 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Approach and avoidance behaviors-the primary responses to the environmental stimuli of danger, novelty and reward-are associated with the brain structures that mediate cognitive functionality, reward sensitivity and emotional expression. Individual differences in approach and avoidance behaviors are modulated by the functioning of amygdaloid-hypothalamic-striatal and striatal-cerebellar networks implicated in action and reaction to salient stimuli. The nodes of these networks are strongly interconnected and by acting on them the endocannabinoid and dopaminergic systems increase the intensity of appetitive or defensive motivation. This review analyzes the approach and avoidance behaviors in humans and rodents, addresses neurobiological and neurochemical aspects of these behaviors, and proposes a possible synaptic plasticity mechanism, related to endocannabinoid-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) and depression that allows responding to salient positive and negative stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Laricchiuta
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa LuciaRome, Italy
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University “Sapienza” of RomeRome, Italy
| | - Laura Petrosini
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa LuciaRome, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University “Sapienza” of RomeRome, Italy
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Alexopoulos H, Dalakas MC. Immunology of stiff person syndrome and other GAD-associated neurological disorders. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2014; 9:1043-53. [DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.2013.845527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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40
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Planche V, Marques A, Ulla M, Ruivard M, Durif F. Intravenous Immunoglobulin and Rituximab for Cerebellar Ataxia with Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase Autoantibodies. THE CEREBELLUM 2013; 13:318-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s12311-013-0534-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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