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Human Endogenous Retrovirus Reactivation: Implications for Cancer Immunotherapy. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13091999. [PMID: 33919186 PMCID: PMC8122352 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13091999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) derive from ancestral exogenous retroviruses whose genetic material has been integrated in our germline DNA. Several lines of evidence indicate that cancer immunotherapy may benefit from HERV reactivation, which can be induced either by drugs or by cellular changes occurring in tumor cells. Indeed, several studies indicate that HERV proviral DNA can be transcribed either to double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) that is sensed as a "danger signal" by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), leading to a viral mimicry state, or to mRNA that is translated into proteins that may contribute to the landscape of tumor-specific antigens (TSAs). Alternatively, HERV reactivation is associated with the expression of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). In this review, we will highlight recent findings on HERV reactivation in cancer and its implications for cancer immunotherapy.
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Schietroma I, Scheri GC, Pinacchio C, Statzu M, Petruzziello A, Vullo V. Hepatitis C Virus and Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Pathogenetic Mechanisms and Impact of Direct-Acting Antivirals. Open Virol J 2018; 12:16-25. [PMID: 29541275 PMCID: PMC5842384 DOI: 10.2174/1874357901812010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Globally, between 64 and 103 million people are chronically infected with Hepatitis C virus (HCV), with more than 4.6 million people in the United States and is associated with more than 15.000 deaths annually. Chronic infection can result in cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. EXPLANATION Epidemiological studies have indicated that persistent infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major risk for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), mainly through chronic inflammation, cell deaths, and proliferation. Despite the new direct-acting antiviral drugs (DAA's) being able to clear the HCV, HCC recurrence rate in these patients is still observed. CONCLUSION In this review we highlighted some aspects that could be involved in the onset of HCV-induced HCC such as immune system, viral factors and host genetics factors.Moreover, we focused on some of the last reports about the effects of DAA's on the HCV clearance and their potential implications in HCC recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Schietroma
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Corano Scheri
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudia Pinacchio
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Maura Statzu
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Virology, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Arnolfo Petruzziello
- Virology and Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Diagnostic Pathology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori, IRCCS Fondazione G. Pascale, Naples, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Vullo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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A Biomolecular Network Driven Proteinic Interaction in HCV Clearance. Cell Biochem Biophys 2018; 76:161-172. [PMID: 29313175 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-017-0837-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus infection causes chronic liver disease that leads to cancer-related mortality. Presently around 30% of the HCV (infected) affected population get rid of the infection through spontaneous disease clearance. This phenomenon is conducted by a set of reported immune candidate genes. Hence, this study focuses only on these immune-response related genes with aid of network approach, where the idea is to disseminate the network for better understanding of key functional genes and their transcription control activity. Based on the network analysis the IFNG, TNF, IFNB1, STAT1, NFKB1, STAT3, SOCS1, and MYD88 genes are prioritized as hub genes along with their common transcription factors (TFs), IRF9, NFKB1, and STAT1. The dinucleotide frequency of TF binding elements indicated GG-rich motifs in these regulatory elements. On the other hand, gene enrichment report suggests the regulation of response to interferon gamma signaling pathway, which plays central role in the spontaneous HCV clearance. Therefore, our study tends to prioritize the genes, TFs, and their regulatory pathway towards HCV clearance. Even so, the resultant hub genes and their TFs and TF binding elements could be crucial in underscoring the clearance activity in specific populations.
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Obaid A, Ahmad J, Naz A, Awan FM, Paracha RZ, Tareen SHK, Anjum S, Raza A, Baumbach J, Ali A. Modeling and analysis of innate immune responses induced by the host cells against hepatitis C virus infection. Integr Biol (Camb) 2015; 7:544-59. [PMID: 25848650 DOI: 10.1039/c4ib00285g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
An in-depth understanding of complex systems such as hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and host immunomodulatory response is an open challenge for biologists. In order to understand the mechanisms involved in immune evasion by HCV, we present a simplified formalization of the highly dynamic system consisting of HCV, its replication cycle and host immune responses at the cellular level using hybrid Petri net (HPN). The approach followed in this study comprises of step wise simulation, model validation and analysis of host immune response. This study was performed with an objective of making correlations among viral RNA levels, interferon (IFN) production and interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) induction. The results correlate with the biological data verifying that the model is very useful in predicting the dynamic behavior of the signaling proteins in response to a stimulus. This study implicates that HCV infection is dependent upon several key factors of the host immune response. The effect of host proteins on limiting viral infection is effectively overruled by the viral pathogen. This study also analyzes activity levels of RNase L, miR-122, IFN, ISGs and PKR induction and inhibition of TLR3/RIG1 mediated pathways in response to targeted manipulation in the presence of HCV. The results are in complete agreement at the time of writing with the published expression studies and western blot experiments. Our model also provides some biological insights regarding the role of PKR in the acute infection of HCV. It might help to explain why many patients fail to clear acute HCV infection while others, with low ISG basal levels, clear HCV spontaneously. The described methodology can easily be reproduced, which suitably supports the study of other viral infections in a formal, automated and expressive manner. The Petri net-based modeling approach applied here may provide valuable insights for study design and analyses to evaluate other disease associated integrated pathways in biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayesha Obaid
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), H-12, Islamabad, 44000 Pakistan.
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Immunological mechanisms controlling hepatitis C virus infection. ASIAN PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TROPICAL DISEASE 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/s2222-1808(14)60633-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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A cognitive computational model inspired by the immune system response. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:852181. [PMID: 25003131 PMCID: PMC4070499 DOI: 10.1155/2014/852181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2013] [Revised: 04/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The immune system has a cognitive ability to differentiate between healthy and unhealthy cells. The immune system response (ISR) is stimulated by a disorder in the temporary fuzzy state that is oscillating between the healthy and unhealthy states. However, modeling the immune system is an enormous challenge; the paper introduces an extensive summary of how the immune system response functions, as an overview of a complex topic, to present the immune system as a cognitive intelligent agent. The homogeneity and perfection of the natural immune system have been always standing out as the sought-after model we attempted to imitate while building our proposed model of cognitive architecture. The paper divides the ISR into four logical phases: setting a computational architectural diagram for each phase, proceeding from functional perspectives (input, process, and output), and their consequences. The proposed architecture components are defined by matching biological operations with computational functions and hence with the framework of the paper. On the other hand, the architecture focuses on the interoperability of main theoretical immunological perspectives (classic, cognitive, and danger theory), as related to computer science terminologies. The paper presents a descriptive model of immune system, to figure out the nature of response, deemed to be intrinsic for building a hybrid computational model based on a cognitive intelligent agent perspective and inspired by the natural biology. To that end, this paper highlights the ISR phases as applied to a case study on hepatitis C virus, meanwhile illustrating our proposed architecture perspective.
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Fierro NA, Gonzalez-Aldaco K, Torres-Valadez R, Martinez-Lopez E, Roman S, Panduro A. Immunologic, metabolic and genetic factors in hepatitis C virus infection. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:3443-3456. [PMID: 24707127 PMCID: PMC3974511 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i13.3443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms that regulate disease progression during hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and the response to treatment are not clearly identified. Numerous studies have demonstrated that a strong host immune response against HCV favors HCV clearance. In addition, genetic factors and metabolic machinery, particularly cholesterol modulation, are involved in HCV infection. It is likely that the interplay between all of these factors contributes to the outcome of HCV infection. In recent years, the world has experienced its largest epidemic of obesity. Mexico and the United States are the leading sufferers from this epidemic at the global level. Obesity is associated with the development of numerous pathologies including hypercholesterolemia which is one of the eight most important risk factors for mortality in Mexico. This may be related to the course of HCV infection in this population. Here, we focus on the urgent need to study the progression of HCV infection in relation to ethnic characteristics. Discoveries are discussed that hold promise in identifying immune, metabolic and genetic factors that, in conjunction, could be therapeutic targets or predictors of the progression of HCV infection.
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Buonaguro L, Petrizzo A, Tagliamonte M, Tornesello ML, Buonaguro FM. Challenges in cancer vaccine development for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2013; 59:897-903. [PMID: 23714157 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2013.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Revised: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common liver malignancy, representing the third and fifth leading cause of death from cancer worldwide in men and women, respectively. The main risk factor for the development of HCC is the hepatitis B and C virus (HBV and HCV) infection; non-viral causes (e.g., alcoholism and aflatoxin) are additional risk factors. HCC prognosis is generally poor because of the low effectiveness of available treatments and the overall 5-year survival rate is approximately 5-6%. In this framework, immunotherapeutic interventions, including cancer vaccines, may represent a novel and effective therapeutic tool. However, only few immunotherapy trials for HCC have been conducted so far with contrasting results, suggesting that improvements in several aspects of the immunotherapy approaches need to be implemented. In particular, identification of novel specific tumor antigens and evaluation of most advanced combinatorial strategies could result in unprecedented clinical outcomes with great beneficial effect for HCC patients. The state of the art in immunotherapy strategies for HCC and future perspectives are reported in the present review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Buonaguro
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Viral Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori "Fondazione Pascale" - IRCCS, Naples, Italy.
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High, broad, polyfunctional, and durable T cell immune responses induced in mice by a novel hepatitis C virus (HCV) vaccine candidate (MVA-HCV) based on modified vaccinia virus Ankara expressing the nearly full-length HCV genome. J Virol 2013; 87:7282-300. [PMID: 23596307 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03246-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A major goal in the control of hepatitis C infection is the development of a vaccine. Here, we have developed a novel HCV vaccine candidate based on the highly attenuated poxvirus vector MVA (referred to as MVA-HCV) expressing the nearly full-length (7.9-kbp) HCV sequence, with the aim to target almost all of the T and B cell determinants described for HCV. In infected cells, MVA-HCV produces a polyprotein that is subsequently processed into the structural and nonstructural HCV proteins, triggering the cytoplasmic accumulation of dense membrane aggregates. In both C57BL/6 and transgenic HLA-A2-vaccinated mice, MVA-HCV induced high, broad, polyfunctional, and long-lasting HCV-specific T cell immune responses. The vaccine-induced T cell response was mainly mediated by CD8 T cells; however, although lower in magnitude, the CD4(+) T cells were highly polyfunctional. In homologous protocol (MVA-HCV/MVA-HCV) the main CD8(+) T cell target was p7+NS2, whereas in heterologous combination (DNA-HCV/MVA-HCV) the main target was NS3. Antigenic responses were also detected against other HCV proteins (Core, E1-E2, and NS4), but the magnitude of the responses was dependent on the protocol used. The majority of the HCV-induced CD8(+) T cells were triple or quadruple cytokine producers. The MVA-HCV vaccine induced memory CD8(+) T cell responses with an effector memory phenotype. Overall, our data showed that MVA-HCV induced broad, highly polyfunctional, and durable T cell responses of a magnitude and quality that might be associated with protective immunity and open the path for future considerations of MVA-HCV as a prophylactic and/or therapeutic vaccine candidate against HCV.
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Fierro NA, Castro-Garcia FP, Panduro A. Rethinking cytokine function during hepatitis A and hepatitis C infections. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.4236/abb.2013.47a1003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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