1
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Zhang J, Li M, Xu R, Kapur S, Bombard A, Song Y. Electrokinetics in antimicrobial resistance analysis: A review. Electrophoresis 2023; 44:323-336. [PMID: 35940104 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202200153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Infections caused by antimicrobial resistance are a serious problem in the world. Currently, commercial devices for antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistant bacteria identification are time-consuming. There is an urgent need to develop fast and accurate methods, especially in the process of sample pretreatment. Electrokinetic (EK) is a family of electric-field-based kinetic phenomena of fluid or embedded objects, and EK applications have been found in various fields. In this paper, EK bacteria manipulation, including enrichment and separation, is reviewed. Focus is given to the rapid electric-based minimum inhibitory concentration measurement. The future directions and major challenges in this field are also outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyan Zhang
- Department of Marine Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, P. R. China
| | - Mengqi Li
- Department of Marine Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, P. R. China
| | - Runxin Xu
- Department of Navigation, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, P. R. China
| | - Suman Kapur
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Antonio Bombard
- Physics and Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Itajubá, Itajubá, Brazil
| | - Yongxin Song
- Department of Marine Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, P. R. China
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2
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Microfluidic chip and isothermal amplification technologies for the detection of pathogenic nucleic acid. J Biol Eng 2022; 16:33. [PMID: 36457138 PMCID: PMC9714395 DOI: 10.1186/s13036-022-00312-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The frequency of outbreaks of newly emerging infectious diseases has increased in recent years. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in late 2019 has caused a global pandemic, seriously endangering human health and social stability. Rapid detection of infectious disease pathogens is a key prerequisite for the early screening of cases and the reduction in transmission risk. Fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) is currently the most commonly used pathogen detection method, but this method has high requirements in terms of operating staff, instrumentation, venues, and so forth. As a result, its application in the settings such as poorly conditioned communities and grassroots has been limited, and the detection needs of the first-line field cannot be met. The development of point-of-care testing (POCT) technology is of great practical significance for preventing and controlling infectious diseases. Isothermal amplification technology has advantages such as mild reaction conditions and low instrument dependence. It has a promising prospect in the development of POCT, combined with the advantages of high integration and portability of microfluidic chip technology. This study summarized the principles of several representative isothermal amplification techniques, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. Particularly, it reviewed the research progress on microfluidic chip-based recombinase polymerase isothermal amplification technology and highlighted future prospects.
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3D Printing Manufacturing of Polydimethyl-Siloxane/Zinc Oxide Micro-Optofluidic Device for Two-Phase Flows Control. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14102113. [PMID: 35631994 PMCID: PMC9146388 DOI: 10.3390/polym14102113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Tailored ZnO surface functionalization was performed inside a polydimethyl-siloxane (PDMS) microchannel of a micro-optofluidic device (mofd) to modulate its surface hydrophobicity to develop a method for fine tuning the fluid dynamics inside a microchannel. The wetting behavior of the surface is of particular importance if two different phases are used for system operations. Therefore, the fluid dynamic behavior of two immiscible fluids, (i) air–water and (ii) air–glycerol/water in PDMS mofds and ZnO-PDMS mofds was investigated by using different experimental conditions. The results showed that air–glycerol/water fluid was always faster than air–water flow, despite the microchannel treatment: however, in the presence of ZnO microstructures, the velocity of the air–glycerol/water fluid decreased compared with that observed for the air–water fluid. This behavior was associated with the strong ability of glycerol to create an H-bond network with the exposed surface of the zinc oxide microparticles. The results presented in this paper allow an understanding of the role of ZnO functionalization, which allows control of the microfluidic two-phase flow using different liquids that undergo different chemical interactions with the surface chemical terminations of the microchannel. This chemical approach is proposed as a control strategy that is easily adaptable for any embedded micro-device.
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Özkayar G, Lötters JC, Tichem M, Ghatkesar MK. Toward a modular, integrated, miniaturized, and portable microfluidic flow control architecture for organs-on-chips applications. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2022; 16:021302. [PMID: 35464136 PMCID: PMC9018096 DOI: 10.1063/5.0074156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic organs-on-chips (OoCs) technology has emerged as the trend for in vitro functional modeling of organs in recent years. Simplifying the complexities of the human organs under controlled perfusion of required fluids paves the way for accurate prediction of human organ functionalities and their response to interventions like exposure to drugs. However, in the state-of-the-art OoC, the existing methods to control fluids use external bulky peripheral components and systems much larger than the chips used in experiments. A new generation of compact microfluidic flow control systems is needed to overcome this challenge. This study first presents a structured classification of OoC devices according to their types and microfluidic complexities. Next, we suggest three fundamental fluid flow control mechanisms and define component configurations for different levels of OoC complexity for each respective mechanism. Finally, we propose an architecture integrating modular microfluidic flow control components and OoC devices on a single platform. We emphasize the need for miniaturization of flow control components to achieve portability, minimize sample usage, minimize dead volume, improve the flowing time of fluids to the OoC cell chamber, and enable long-duration experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gürhan Özkayar
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marcel Tichem
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Murali K. Ghatkesar
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
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5
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Chen J, San SSS, Kung A, Tomasek M, Liu D, Rodgers W, Gau V. Direct-from-specimen microbial growth inhibition spectrums under antibiotic exposure and comparison to conventional antimicrobial susceptibility testing. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263868. [PMID: 35171945 PMCID: PMC8849476 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing global travel and changes in the environment may escalate the frequency of contact with a natural host carrying an infection and, therefore, increase our chances of encountering microorganisms previously unknown to humans. During an emergency, the etiology of infection may be unknown at the time of patient treatment. The existing local or global Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs may not be fully prepared for emerging/re-emerging infectious disease outbreaks, especially if they are caused by an unknown organism, engineered bioterrorist attack, or rapidly evolving superbug. We demonstrate an antimicrobial efficacy profiling method that can be performed in hours directly from clinical urine specimens. The antimicrobial potency was determined by the level of microbial growth inhibition and compared to conventional antimicrobial susceptibility testing results. The oligonucleotide probe pairs on the sensors were designed to target Gram-negative bacteria, specifically Enterobacterales and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A pilot study of 10 remnant clinical specimens from the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments-certified labs of New York-Presbyterian Queens was conducted, and only one sample was not detected by the probes. The remaining nine samples agreed with reference AST methods (Vitek and broth microdilution), resulting in 100% categorical agreement. In a separate feasibility study, we evaluated a dual-kinetic response approach, in which we inoculated two antibiotic stripwells containing the same antimicrobial concentrations with clinical specimens at the original concentration (1x) and at a 10-fold dilution (0.1x) to cover a broader range of microbiological responses. The combined categorical susceptibility reporting of 12 contrived urine specimens was 100% for ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, and meropenem over a range of microbial loads from 105 to 108 CFU/mL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jade Chen
- GeneFluidics, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Su Su Soe San
- GeneFluidics, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Amelia Kung
- GeneFluidics, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Michael Tomasek
- GeneFluidics, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Dakai Liu
- Department of Pathology and Clinical Laboratories, New York-Presbyterian Queens, Flushing, New York, United States of America
| | - William Rodgers
- Department of Pathology and Clinical Laboratories, New York-Presbyterian Queens, Flushing, New York, United States of America
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Vincent Gau
- GeneFluidics, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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6
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Chakraborty R, Maiti A, Sharma N, Dey KK. Active matter dynamics in confined microfluidic environments. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2022; 186:245-265. [PMID: 35033287 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2021.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The field of active matter is a nascent area of research in soft condensed matter physics, which is drawing on the expertise of researchers from diverse disciplines. Small scale active particles-both inorganic and biological-display non-trivial emergent dynamics and interactions that could help us understand complex biological processes and phenomena. Recently, using microfluidic technologies, several research groups have performed important experimental and theoretical studies to understand the behavior of self-propelled particles and molecular active matter within confined environments-to glean a fundamental understanding of the cellular processes occurring under ultra-low Reynolds number conditions. In this chapter, we would like to review applications of microfluidics in active matter research, highlighting a few important theoretical and experimental investigations. We will conclude the discussion with a note on the future of this field mentioning a few open questions that are at the forefront of our minds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rik Chakraborty
- Discipline of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
| | - Arnab Maiti
- Discipline of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
| | - Nikita Sharma
- Discipline of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
| | - Krishna Kanti Dey
- Discipline of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India.
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7
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A Smartphone-Based Detection Method of Colloidal Gold Immunochromatographic Strip. PHOTONICS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/photonics8120576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The outbreak of the new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection has become a global public health crisis. Antigen detection strips (colloidal gold) can be widely used in novel coronavirus clinical screening and can even be extended to home self-testing, which provides a practical and effective way for people to obtain health status information away from the crowd. In this paper, a colloidal gold detection system without complex devices is proposed, which is based on smartphone usage along with a mobile-phone software embedded with normalization algorithms and a special designed background paper. The basic principle of the device relies on image processing. First, the data of the green channel of the image captured by a smartphone are selected to be processed. Second, the calibration curves are established using standard black and white card, and the calibration values under different detection environments are obtained by calibration curves. Finally, to verify the validity of the proposed method, various standard solutions with different concentrations are tested. Results show that this method can eliminate the influence of different environments on the test results, the test results in different detection environments have good stability and the variation coefficients are less than 5%. It fully proves that the detection system designed in this paper can detect the result of colloidal gold immunochromatographic strip in time, conveniently and accurately in different environments.
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8
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Wang J, Ma P, Kim DH, Liu BF, Demirci U. Towards Microfluidic-Based Exosome Isolation and Detection for Tumor Therapy. NANO TODAY 2021; 37:101066. [PMID: 33777166 PMCID: PMC7990116 DOI: 10.1016/j.nantod.2020.101066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes are a class of cell-secreted, nano-sized extracellular vesicles with a bilayer membrane structure of 30-150 nm in diameter. Their discovery and application have brought breakthroughs in numerous areas, such as liquid biopsies, cancer biology, drug delivery, immunotherapy, tissue repair, and cardiovascular diseases. Isolation of exosomes is the first step in exosome-related research and its applications. Standard benchtop exosome separation and sensing techniques are tedious and challenging, as they require large sample volumes, multi-step operations that are complex and time-consuming, requiring cumbersome and expensive instruments. In contrast, microfluidic platforms have the potential to overcome some of these limitations, owing to their high-precision processing, ability to handle liquids at a microscale, and integrability with various functional units, such as mixers, actuators, reactors, separators, and sensors. These platforms can optimize the detection process on a single device, representing a robust and versatile technique for exosome separation and sensing to attain high purity and high recovery rates with a short processing time. Herein, we overview microfluidic strategies for exosome isolation based on their hydrodynamic properties, size filtration, acoustic fields, immunoaffinity, and dielectrophoretic properties. We focus especially on advances in label-free isolation of exosomes with active biological properties and intact morphological structures. Further, we introduce microfluidic techniques for the detection of exosomal proteins and RNAs with high sensitivity, high specificity, and low detection limits. We summarize the biomedical applications of exosome-mediated therapeutic delivery targeting cancer cells. To highlight the advantages of microfluidic platforms, conventional techniques are included for comparison. Future challenges and prospects of microfluidics towards exosome isolation applications are also discussed. Although the use of exosomes in clinical applications still faces biological, technical, regulatory, and market challenges, in the foreseeable future, recent developments in microfluidic technologies are expected to pave the way for tailoring exosome-related applications in precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Wang
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Department of Radiology, School of Medicine Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304-5427, USA
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California 94305, USA
| | - Peng Ma
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Department of Radiology, School of Medicine Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304-5427, USA
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics at Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics-Hubei Bioinformatics & Molecular Imaging Key Laboratory Systems Biology Theme, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California 94305, USA
| | - Daniel H Kim
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California 94305, USA
| | - Bi-Feng Liu
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics at Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics-Hubei Bioinformatics & Molecular Imaging Key Laboratory Systems Biology Theme, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Utkan Demirci
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Department of Radiology, School of Medicine Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304-5427, USA
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California 94305, USA
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9
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Zhao X, Park DSW, Soper SA, Murphy MC. Microfluidic gasketless interconnects sealed by superhydrophobic surfaces. JOURNAL OF MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS : A JOINT IEEE AND ASME PUBLICATION ON MICROSTRUCTURES, MICROACTUATORS, MICROSENSORS, AND MICROSYSTEMS 2020; 29:894-899. [PMID: 33746475 PMCID: PMC7978084 DOI: 10.1109/jmems.2020.3000325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Existing methods for sealing chip-to-chip (or module-to-motherboard) microfluidic interconnects commonly use additional interconnect components (O-rings, gaskets, and tubing), and manual handling expertise for assembly. Novel gasketless superhydrophobic fluidic interconnects (GSFIs) sealed by transparent superhydrophobic surfaces, forming liquid bridges between the fluidic ports for fluidic passages were demonstrated. Two test platforms were designed, fabricated, and evaluated, a multi-port chip system (ten interconnects) and a modules-on-a-motherboard system (four interconnects). System assembly in less than 3 sec was done by embedded magnets and pin-in-V-groove structures. Flow tests with deionized (DI) water, ethanol/water mixture, and plasma confirmed no leakage through the gasketless interconnects up to a maximum flow rate of 100 μL/min for the multi-port chip system. The modules-on-a-motherboard system showed no leakage of water at a flow rate of 20 μL/min and a pressure drop of 3.71 psi. Characterization of the leakage pressure as a function of the surface tension of the sample liquid in the multi-port chip system revealed that lower surface tension of the liquid led to lower static water contact angles on the superhydrophobic-coated substrate and lower leakage pressures. The high-density, rapidly assembled, gasketless interconnect technology will open up new avenues for chip-to-chip fluid transport in complex microfluidic modular systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Zhao
- Center for BioModular Multiscale Systems for Precision Medicine, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Daniel S-W Park
- Center for BioModular Multiscale Systems for Precision Medicine, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Steven A Soper
- Center for BioModular Multiscale Systems for Precision Medicine Departments of Chemistry and Mechanical Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 66045, USA
| | - Michael C Murphy
- Center for BioModular Multiscale Systems for Precision Medicine, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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10
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Dempsey D, McDonald S, Masato D, Barry C. Characterization of Stereolithography Printed Soft Tooling for Micro Injection Molding. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11090819. [PMID: 32872383 PMCID: PMC7570071 DOI: 10.3390/mi11090819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The use of microfeature-enabled devices, such as microfluidic platforms and anti-fouling surfaces, has grown in both potential and application in recent years. Injection molding is an attractive method of manufacturing these devices due to its excellent process throughput and commodity-priced raw materials. Still, the manufacture of micro-structured tooling remains a slow and expensive endeavor. This work investigated the feasibility of utilizing additive manufacturing, specifically a Digital Light Processing (DLP)-based inverted stereolithography process, to produce thermoset polymer-based tooling for micro injection molding. Inserts were created with an array of 100-μm wide micro-features, having different heights and thus aspect ratios. These inserts were molded with high flow polypropylene to investigate print process resolution capabilities, channel replication abilities, and insert wear and longevity. Samples were characterized using contact profilometry as well as optical and scanning electron microscopies. Overall, the inserts exhibited a maximum lifetime of 78 molding cycles and failed by cracking of the entire insert. Damage was observed for the higher aspect ratio features but not the lower aspect ratio features. The effect of the tool material on mold temperature distribution was modeled to analyze the impact of processing and mold design.
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11
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Abstract
The emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) threatens the health of the global population and challenges our preparedness for pandemic threats. Previous outbreaks of coronaviruses and other viruses have suggested the importance of diagnostic technologies in fighting viral outbreaks. Nucleic acid detection techniques are the gold standard for detecting SARS-CoV-2. Viral antigen tests and serological tests that detect host antibodies have also been developed for studying the epidemiology of COVID-19 and estimating the population that may have immunity to SARS-CoV-2. Nevertheless, the availability, cost, and performance of existing viral diagnostic technologies limit their practicality, and novel approaches are required for improving our readiness for global pandemics. Here, we review the principles and limitations of major viral diagnostic technologies and highlight recent advances of molecular assays for COVID-19. In addition, we discuss emerging technologies, such as clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) systems, high-throughput sequencing, and single-cell and single-molecule analysis, for improving our ability to understand, trace, and contain viral outbreaks. The prospects of viral diagnostic technologies for combating future pandemic threats are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ninghao Zhu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Pak Kin Wong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,Department of Mechanical Engineering and Department of Surgery, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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12
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Al-Halhouli A, El Far B, Albagdady A, Al-Faqheri W. Development of Active Centrifugal Pump for Microfluidic CD Platforms. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:E140. [PMID: 32012735 PMCID: PMC7074607 DOI: 10.3390/mi11020140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The continuous emerging of microfluidic compact disc (CD) platforms for various real-life applications motivates researchers to explore new innovative ideas towards more integrated active functions. However, microfluidic CDs have some drawbacks, including the unidirectional flow that limits the usable space for multi-stepped biological and chemical assays. In this work, a novel active and bidirectional centrifugal pump is developed and integrated on microfluidic CDs. The design of the developed pump partially replicates the designs of the conventional centrifugal pumps with a modification in the connecting channels' positions that allow the developed pump to be reversible. The main advantage of the proposed centrifugal pump is that the pumping speed can be accurately controlled during spinning or while the microfluidic CD is stationary. Performance tests show that the pumping speed can reach up to 164.93 mm3/s at a pump rotational speed (impellers speed) of 4288 rpm. At that speed, 1 mL of water could be pumped in 6.06 s. To present a few of the potential applications of the centrifugal pump, flow reciprocation, bidirectional pumping, and flow switching were performed and evaluated. Results show that the developed centrifugal pump can pump 1096 µL of liquid towards the CD center at 87% pumping efficiency while spinning the microfluidic CD at 250 rpm. This novel centrifugal pump can significantly widen the range of the applicability of microfluidic CDs in advanced chemical processes and biological assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ala’aldeen Al-Halhouli
- NanoLab, School of Applied Technical Sciences, German Jordanian University (GJU), Amman 11180, Jordan; (A.A.); (W.A.-F.)
- Institut für Mikrotechnik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
- Faculty of Engineering, Middle East University, Amman 11831, Jordan
| | - Baha El Far
- School of Engineering and Technology, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI 48859, USA;
| | - Ahmed Albagdady
- NanoLab, School of Applied Technical Sciences, German Jordanian University (GJU), Amman 11180, Jordan; (A.A.); (W.A.-F.)
| | - Wisam Al-Faqheri
- NanoLab, School of Applied Technical Sciences, German Jordanian University (GJU), Amman 11180, Jordan; (A.A.); (W.A.-F.)
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Uddin MJ, Shim JS. Microfluidic Adapter Converting a 96-Well Cartridge into an Autonomous Microfluidic Device. Anal Chem 2019; 91:2686-2694. [PMID: 30596424 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b04043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, an immunosensing platform by integrating a single array of conventional 96-well cartridges with low-cost polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) pillars and thermoplastic chip was designed and developed to execute enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The platform provides multiple (eight) reaction chambers for sequentially detecting multiple analytes under similar assay environments. For multiple immunoassays, the reaction chambers are consequently activated using a microvalve integrated with the sensing zones via the thermoplastic chip. Because the reaction zones are able to be selected and isolated from each other by the microvalve, multiple immunoassays can be implemented, avoiding cross-contamination. The performance of the sensing platform demonstrated its effectiveness in assaying with an optimal sample volume of 10 μL with an assay time of 10-15 min for different assay steps, which is much lower than the conventional immunoassay using 96-well plates. Thus, a low detection limit of 9.75 pg/mL is achieved using the developed platform to successfully detect the cardiac troponin I (cTnI). As a result, the cost-effectively made PDMS pillars and 96-well cartridge based hybrid immunosensing platform are widely applicable for high-throughput multiple lab-on-a-chip immunoassays.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Jalal Uddin
- Bio-IT Convergence Laboratory, Department of Electronic Convergence Engineering , Kwangwoon University , Seoul 139-701 , Republic of Korea
| | - Joon S Shim
- Bio-IT Convergence Laboratory, Department of Electronic Convergence Engineering , Kwangwoon University , Seoul 139-701 , Republic of Korea
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14
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Li H, Lu Y, Wong PK. Diffusion-reaction kinetics of microfluidic amperometric biosensors. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:3086-3089. [PMID: 30207365 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00794b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Amperometric biosensors are widely applied for rapid biomarker detection in physiological and environmental samples. The dynamics and linearity of the current signal, however, are only partially understood. This study investigates the diffusion-reaction kinetics of amperometric biosensing using a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) based biosensor for bacterial 16S rRNA. A numerical model is developed to optimize the chamber dimensions and elucidate the concentration dependences of the biosensor. The results revealed that depletion of substrates associated with the chamber dimension can limit the current signal in a target concentration dependent manner. This study provides practical guidelines in the design and interpretation of microfluidic amperometric biosensors for biochemical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.
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15
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Ouyang W, Li Z, Han J. Pressure-Modulated Selective Electrokinetic Trapping for Direct Enrichment, Purification, and Detection of Nucleic Acids in Human Serum. Anal Chem 2018; 90:11366-11375. [PMID: 30157631 PMCID: PMC6785752 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b02330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Micro total-analysis systems (μTAS) have been extensively developed for the detection of nucleic acids (NAs) in resource-limited settings in recent years, yet the sample-preparation steps that interface real-world samples with on-chip analytics remain as the technical bottleneck. We report pressure-modulated selective electrokinetic trapping (PM-SET) for the direct enrichment, purification, and detection of NAs in human serum in one step without involving tedious solid-phase extraction, chemical amplification, and surface-hybridization-based assays. Under appropriately modulated hydrostatic pressures, NAs in human serum were selectively enriched in an electrokinetic concentrator with the majority of background proteins removed, achieving an enrichment factor of >4800 in 15 min. A sequence-specific NA was detected simultaneously during the enrichment process using a complementary morpholino (MO) probe, realizing a limit of detection of 3 pM in 15 min. PM-SET greatly reduces the cost, time, and complexity of sample preparation for NA detection and could be easily interfaced with existing NA-detection devices to achieve true sample-to-answer biomolecular analytics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ouyang
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Zirui Li
- Institute of Laser and Optoelectronic Intelligent Manufacturing, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering , Wenzhou University , Wenzhou 325035 , PR China
| | - Jongyoon Han
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
- Research Laboratory of Electronics , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
- Institute of Laser and Optoelectronic Intelligent Manufacturing, College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering , Wenzhou University , Wenzhou 325035 , PR China
- Department of Biological Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
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16
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Zemánek J, Michálek T, Hurák Z. Phase-shift feedback control for dielectrophoretic micromanipulation. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:1793-1801. [PMID: 29796529 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00113h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a novel approach to noncontact micromanipulation by controlled dielectrophoresis (DEP). To steer micro-objects in the desired way, the solutions reported in the literature use either DEP cages or amplitude modulation of the voltages applied to the electrodes. In contrast, we modulate the phases, that is, we control the phase shifts of the voltages applied to the electrodes, which simplifies the hardware implementation and extends the set of feasible forces. Furthermore, we introduce an innovative micro-electrode array layout, composed of four sectors with parallel (colinear) electrodes, which is capable of inducing an arbitrary movement in the manipulation area and is easy to fabricate using just an affordable one-layer technology. We then propose a closed-loop cascade control strategy based on real-time numerical optimization and deploy it to our experimental set-up. Numerical simulations and laboratory experiments demonstrate the manipulation capabilities such as positioning and steering of one or several microscopic objects (microspheres with a diameter of 50 μm) and even bringing two objects together and then separating them again. The results from simulations and experiments are compared and the positioning accuracy is evaluated in the whole manipulation area. The error in position is 8 μm in the worst case, which corresponds to 16% of the microsphere size or 0.7% of the manipulation range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiří Zemánek
- Department of Control Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Karlovo Namesti 13, 121 35, Prague, Czech Republic.
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17
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Im SB, Uddin MJ, Jin GJ, Shim JS. A disposable on-chip microvalve and pump for programmable microfluidics. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:1310-1319. [PMID: 29619470 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00003d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In this work, a low-cost PDMS micro-pump and -valve have been designed and developed to control multiple reagents for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) on a programmable lab-on-a-chip (LOC) platform. The micro pump and valves were precisely controlled by selectively pressurizing the PDMS channels and chamber to actuate the multiple reagents in a controlled manner. Selective pressurizing of the PDMS structures was initiated by a simple system that maneuvered a single roller bar operated by a programmed microprocessor. The performance of the micro-pump was fully characterized and a minimum fluid volume of 1 μL was controlled. Also, the on-chip microvalves were programmed to flow the multiple reagents to automatically process the multi-step ELISA procedures. By applying the proposed platform, 19.40 pg ml-1 cardiac troponin T (cTnT) was successfully detected on the LOC device by using multiple programmed valves as multiple steps of the enzyme-linked sandwich immunoassay. As a result, the developed micro-pump and -valve, which were successfully applied to actuate a series of solutions in a controlled manner, can be widely applied to lab-on-a-chip based bioassays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung B Im
- Bio-IT Convergence Laboratory, Department of Electronic Convergence Engineering, KwangWoon University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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18
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Kim SB, Zhang Y, Won SM, Bandodkar AJ, Sekine Y, Xue Y, Koo J, Harshman SW, Martin JA, Park JM, Ray TR, Crawford KE, Lee KT, Choi J, Pitsch RL, Grigsby CC, Strang AJ, Chen YY, Xu S, Kim J, Koh A, Ha JS, Huang Y, Kim SW, Rogers JA. Super-Absorbent Polymer Valves and Colorimetric Chemistries for Time-Sequenced Discrete Sampling and Chloride Analysis of Sweat via Skin-Mounted Soft Microfluidics. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2018; 14:e1703334. [PMID: 29394467 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201703334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This paper introduces super absorbent polymer valves and colorimetric sensing reagents as enabling components of soft, skin-mounted microfluidic devices designed to capture, store, and chemically analyze sweat released from eccrine glands. The valving technology enables robust means for guiding the flow of sweat from an inlet location into a collection of isolated reservoirs, in a well-defined sequence. Analysis in these reservoirs involves a color responsive indicator of chloride concentration with a formulation tailored to offer stable operation with sensitivity optimized for the relevant physiological range. Evaluations on human subjects with comparisons against ex situ analysis illustrate the practical utility of these advances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Bong Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Yi Zhang
- Center for Bio-Integrated Elecctronics at the Simpson Querry Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Sang Min Won
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Amay J Bandodkar
- Center for Bio-Integrated Elecctronics at the Simpson Querry Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Yurina Sekine
- Materials Sciences Research Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Tokai, Ibaraki, 319-1195, Japan
| | - Yeguang Xue
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Jahyun Koo
- Center for Bio-Integrated Elecctronics at the Simpson Querry Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Sean W Harshman
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Airman Systems Directorate, Human-Centered ISR Division, Human Signatures Branch Air Force Research Laboratories WPAFB, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Jennifer A Martin
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Airman Systems Directorate, Human-Centered ISR Division, Human Signatures Branch Air Force Research Laboratories WPAFB, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Jeong Min Park
- Department of Physics, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Tyler R Ray
- Center for Bio-Integrated Elecctronics at the Simpson Querry Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Kaitlyn E Crawford
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
| | - Kyu-Tae Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Jungil Choi
- Center for Bio-Integrated Elecctronics at the Simpson Querry Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Rhonda L Pitsch
- Contractor for The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine 711th Human Performance Wing, Airman Systems Directorate, Human-Centered ISR Division, Human Signatures Branch Air Force Research Laboratories WPAFB, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Claude C Grigsby
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Airman Systems Directorate, Human-Centered ISR Division, Human Signatures Branch Air Force Research Laboratories WPAFB, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Adam J Strang
- Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Yu-Yu Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Shuai Xu
- Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Jeonghyun Kim
- Department of Electronics Convergence Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Nowon-gu, Seoul, 01897, Republic of Korea
| | - Ahyeon Koh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Binghamton University, State University of New York, Binghamton, NY, 13902, USA
| | - Jeong Sook Ha
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Yonggang Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Seung Wook Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - John A Rogers
- Center for Bio-Integrated Elecctronics at the Simpson Querry Institute for BioNanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute for Nano/Biotechnology, McCormick School of Engineering and Feinberg, School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
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19
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Li Y, Yang X, Zhao W. Emerging Microtechnologies and Automated Systems for Rapid Bacterial Identification and Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing. SLAS Technol 2017; 22:585-608. [PMID: 28850804 DOI: 10.1177/2472630317727519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Rapid bacterial identification (ID) and antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) are in great demand due to the rise of drug-resistant bacteria. Conventional culture-based AST methods suffer from a long turnaround time. By necessity, physicians often have to treat patients empirically with antibiotics, which has led to an inappropriate use of antibiotics, an elevated mortality rate and healthcare costs, and antibiotic resistance. Recent advances in miniaturization and automation provide promising solutions for rapid bacterial ID/AST profiling, which will potentially make a significant impact in the clinical management of infectious diseases and antibiotic stewardship in the coming years. In this review, we summarize and analyze representative emerging micro- and nanotechnologies, as well as automated systems for bacterial ID/AST, including both phenotypic (e.g., microfluidic-based bacterial culture, and digital imaging of single cells) and molecular (e.g., multiplex PCR, hybridization probes, nanoparticles, synthetic biology tools, mass spectrometry, and sequencing technologies) methods. We also discuss representative point-of-care (POC) systems that integrate sample processing, fluid handling, and detection for rapid bacterial ID/AST. Finally, we highlight major remaining challenges and discuss potential future endeavors toward improving clinical outcomes with rapid bacterial ID/AST technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyan Li
- 1 Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,7 Department of Physics and Engineering, Fort Lewis College, Durango, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Weian Zhao
- 1 Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,6 Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
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20
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Davenport M, Mach KE, Shortliffe LMD, Banaei N, Wang TH, Liao JC. New and developing diagnostic technologies for urinary tract infections. Nat Rev Urol 2017; 14:296-310. [PMID: 28248946 PMCID: PMC5473291 DOI: 10.1038/nrurol.2017.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Timely and accurate identification and determination of the antimicrobial susceptibility of uropathogens is central to the management of UTIs. Urine dipsticks are fast and amenable to point-of-care testing, but do not have adequate diagnostic accuracy or provide microbiological diagnosis. Urine culture with antimicrobial susceptibility testing takes 2-3 days and requires a clinical laboratory. The common use of empirical antibiotics has contributed to the rise of multidrug-resistant organisms, reducing treatment options and increasing costs. In addition to improved antimicrobial stewardship and the development of new antimicrobials, novel diagnostics are needed for timely microbial identification and determination of antimicrobial susceptibilities. New diagnostic platforms, including nucleic acid tests and mass spectrometry, have been approved for clinical use and have improved the speed and accuracy of pathogen identification from primary cultures. Optimization for direct urine testing would reduce the time to diagnosis, yet these technologies do not provide comprehensive information on antimicrobial susceptibility. Emerging technologies including biosensors, microfluidics, and other integrated platforms could improve UTI diagnosis via direct pathogen detection from urine samples, rapid antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and point-of-care testing. Successful development and implementation of these technologies has the potential to usher in an era of precision medicine to improve patient care and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Davenport
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive S-287, Stanford, California 94305 USA
| | - Kathleen E Mach
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive S-287, Stanford, California 94305 USA
| | - Linda M Dairiki Shortliffe
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive S-287, Stanford, California 94305 USA
| | - Niaz Banaei
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 3375 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 USA
| | - Tza-Huei Wang
- Departments of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
| | - Joseph C Liao
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive S-287, Stanford, California 94305 USA
- Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, 3801 Miranda Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 USA
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21
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Reis NM, Pivetal J, Loo-Zazueta AL, Barros JMS, Edwards AD. Lab on a stick: multi-analyte cellular assays in a microfluidic dipstick. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:2891-2899. [PMID: 27374435 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc00332j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A new microfluidic concept for multi-analyte testing in a dipstick format is presented, termed "Lab-on-a-Stick", that combines the simplicity of dipstick tests with the high performance of microfluidic devices. Lab-on-a-stick tests are ideally suited to analysis of particulate samples such as mammalian or bacterial cells, and capable of performing multiple different parallel microfluidic assays when dipped into a single sample with results recorded optically. The utility of this new diagnostics format was demonstrated by performing three types of multiplex cellular assays that are challenging to perform in conventional dipsticks: 1) instantaneous ABO blood typing; 2) microbial identification; and 3) antibiotic minimum inhibitory (MIC) concentration measurement. A pressure balance model closely predicted the superficial flow velocities in individual capillaries, that were overestimated by up to one order of magnitude by the Lucas-Washburn equation conventionally used for wicking in cylindrical pores. Lab-on-a-stick provides a cost-effective, simple, portable and flexible multiplex platform for a range of assays, and will deliver a new generation of advanced yet affordable point-of-care tests for global diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno M Reis
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK.
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22
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Bissonnette L, Bergeron MG. The GenePOC Platform, a Rational Solution for Extreme Point-of-Care Testing. MICROMACHINES 2016; 7:E94. [PMID: 30404270 PMCID: PMC6189873 DOI: 10.3390/mi7060094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Extreme point-of-care (POC) testing for infections, as performed (endured) in low-resource settings, developing countries, tropical areas, or in conditions following emergency crises or natural disasters, must be undertaken under environmental, logistic, and societal conditions which impose a significant deal of stress on local human populations and healthcare providers. For disease diagnostics or management, simple and robust biomedical equipment and reagents are required and needed. This chapter aims to overview some of these stresses (requirements) and intends to describe some of the solutions already engineered at the heart of centripetal (centrifugal) microfluidic platforms such as that of GenePOC Inc. to enable rapid, robust, and reproducible nucleic acid-based diagnostics of infectious diseases, to better control the morbidity and mortality of infections and the expanding threat posed by antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc Bissonnette
- Centre de recherche en infectiologie de l'Université Laval, Axe maladies infectieuses et immunitaires, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G2, Canada.
- Département de microbiologie-infectiologie et d'immunologie, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - Michel G Bergeron
- Centre de recherche en infectiologie de l'Université Laval, Axe maladies infectieuses et immunitaires, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G2, Canada.
- Département de microbiologie-infectiologie et d'immunologie, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
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23
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Sahmani M, Vatanmakanian M, Goudarzi M, Mobarra N, Azad M. Microchips and their Significance in Isolation of Circulating Tumor Cells and Monitoring of Cancers. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2016; 17:879-94. [DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2016.17.3.879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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24
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Smith S, Mager D, Perebikovsky A, Shamloo E, Kinahan D, Mishra R, Torres Delgado SM, Kido H, Saha S, Ducrée J, Madou M, Land K, Korvink JG. CD-Based Microfluidics for Primary Care in Extreme Point-of-Care Settings. MICROMACHINES 2016; 7:mi7020022. [PMID: 30407395 PMCID: PMC6190444 DOI: 10.3390/mi7020022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Revised: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
We review the utility of centrifugal microfluidic technologies applied to point-of-care diagnosis in extremely under-resourced environments. The various challenges faced in these settings are showcased, using areas in India and Africa as examples. Measures for the ability of integrated devices to effectively address point-of-care challenges are highlighted, and centrifugal, often termed CD-based microfluidic technologies, technologies are presented as a promising platform to address these challenges. We describe the advantages of centrifugal liquid handling, as well as the ability of a standard CD player to perform a number of common laboratory tests, fulfilling the role of an integrated lab-on-a-CD. Innovative centrifugal approaches for point-of-care in extremely resource-poor settings are highlighted, including sensing and detection strategies, smart power sources and biomimetic inspiration for environmental control. The evolution of centrifugal microfluidics, along with examples of commercial and advanced prototype centrifugal microfluidic systems, is presented, illustrating the success of deployment at the point-of-care. A close fit of emerging centrifugal systems to address a critical panel of tests for under-resourced clinic settings, formulated by medical experts, is demonstrated. This emphasizes the potential of centrifugal microfluidic technologies to be applied effectively to extremely challenging point-of-care scenarios and in playing a role in improving primary care in resource-limited settings across the developing world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Smith
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Meiring Naude Road, Brummeria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.
| | - Dario Mager
- Institute of Microstructure Technology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany.
| | - Alexandra Perebikovsky
- School of Engineering and School of Physical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, 4200 Engineering Gateway, Irvine, CA 92697-3975, USA.
| | - Ehsan Shamloo
- School of Engineering and School of Physical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, 4200 Engineering Gateway, Irvine, CA 92697-3975, USA.
| | - David Kinahan
- School of Physical Sciences, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland.
| | - Rohit Mishra
- School of Physical Sciences, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland.
| | - Saraí M Torres Delgado
- Simulation Laboratory, Department of Microsystems Engineering (IMTEK), University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau 79085, Germany.
| | - Horacio Kido
- School of Engineering and School of Physical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, 4200 Engineering Gateway, Irvine, CA 92697-3975, USA.
| | - Satadal Saha
- Foundation for Innovations in Health and JSV Innovations Private Limited, 44A S P Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700026, India.
| | - Jens Ducrée
- School of Physical Sciences, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland.
| | - Marc Madou
- School of Engineering and School of Physical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, 4200 Engineering Gateway, Irvine, CA 92697-3975, USA.
| | - Kevin Land
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Meiring Naude Road, Brummeria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.
| | - Jan G Korvink
- Institute of Microstructure Technology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany.
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25
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Burger S, Schulz M, von Stetten F, Zengerle R, Paust N. Rigorous buoyancy driven bubble mixing for centrifugal microfluidics. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:261-268. [PMID: 26607320 DOI: 10.1039/c5lc01280e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We present batch-mode mixing for centrifugal microfluidics operated at fixed rotational frequency. Gas is generated by the disk integrated decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to liquid water (H2O) and gaseous oxygen (O2) and inserted into a mixing chamber. There, bubbles are formed that ascent through the liquid in the artificial gravity field and lead to drag flow. Additionaly, strong buoyancy causes deformation and rupture of the gas bubbles and induces strong mixing flows in the liquids. Buoyancy driven bubble mixing is quantitatively compared to shake mode mixing, mixing by reciprocation and vortex mixing. To determine mixing efficiencies in a meaningful way, the different mixers are employed for mixing of a lysis reagent and human whole blood. Subsequently, DNA is extracted from the lysate and the amount of DNA recovered is taken as a measure for mixing efficiency. Relative to standard vortex mixing, DNA extraction based on buoyancy driven bubble mixing resulted in yields of 92 ± 8% (100 s mixing time) and 100 ± 8% (600 s) at 130g centrifugal acceleration. Shake mode mixing yields 96 ± 11% and is thus equal to buoyancy driven bubble mixing. An advantage of buoyancy driven bubble mixing is that it can be operated at fixed rotational frequency, however. The additional costs of implementing buoyancy driven bubble mixing are low since both the activation liquid and the catalyst are very low cost and no external means are required in the processing device. Furthermore, buoyancy driven bubble mixing can easily be integrated in a monolithic manner and is compatible to scalable manufacturing technologies such as injection moulding or thermoforming. We consider buoyancy driven bubble mixing an excellent alternative to shake mode mixing, in particular if the processing device is not capable of providing fast changes of rotational frequency or if the low average rotational frequency is challenging for the other integrated fluidic operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Burger
- Hahn-Schickard, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - M Schulz
- Hahn-Schickard, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - F von Stetten
- Hahn-Schickard, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany. and Laboratory for MEMS Applications, IMTEK - Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - R Zengerle
- Hahn-Schickard, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany. and Laboratory for MEMS Applications, IMTEK - Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - N Paust
- Hahn-Schickard, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany. and Laboratory for MEMS Applications, IMTEK - Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
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26
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Ahmed D, Peng X, Ozcelik A, Zheng Y, Huang TJ. Acousto-plasmofluidics: Acoustic modulation of surface plasmon resonance in microfluidic systems. AIP ADVANCES 2015; 5:097161. [PMID: 26421224 PMCID: PMC4575316 DOI: 10.1063/1.4931641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
We acoustically modulated the localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs) of metal nanostructures integrated within microfluidic systems. An acoustically driven micromixing device based on bubble microstreaming quickly and homogeneously mixes multiple laminar flows of different refractive indices. The altered refractive index of the mixed fluids enables rapid modulation of the LSPRs of gold nanodisk arrays embedded within the microfluidic channel. The device features fast response for dynamic operation, and the refractive index within the channel is tailorable. With these unique features, our "acousto-plasmofluidic" device can be useful in applications such as optical switches, modulators, filters, biosensors, and lab-on-a-chip systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ahmed
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Xiaolei Peng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin , Austin, TX 78712 USA
| | - Adem Ozcelik
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Yuebing Zheng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin , Austin, TX 78712 USA
| | - Tony Jun Huang
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University , University Park, PA 16802 USA
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Hsieh K, Ferguson BS, Eisenstein M, Plaxco KW, Soh HT. Integrated electrochemical microsystems for genetic detection of pathogens at the point of care. Acc Chem Res 2015; 48:911-20. [PMID: 25785632 DOI: 10.1021/ar500456w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The capacity to achieve rapid, sensitive, specific, quantitative, and multiplexed genetic detection of pathogens via a robust, portable, point-of-care platform could transform many diagnostic applications. And while contemporary technologies have yet to effectively achieve this goal, the advent of microfluidics provides a potentially viable approach to this end by enabling the integration of sophisticated multistep biochemical assays (e.g., sample preparation, genetic amplification, and quantitative detection) in a monolithic, portable device from relatively small biological samples. Integrated electrochemical sensors offer a particularly promising solution to genetic detection because they do not require optical instrumentation and are readily compatible with both integrated circuit and microfluidic technologies. Nevertheless, the development of generalizable microfluidic electrochemical platforms that integrate sample preparation and amplification as well as quantitative and multiplexed detection remains a challenging and unsolved technical problem. Recognizing this unmet need, we have developed a series of microfluidic electrochemical DNA sensors that have progressively evolved to encompass each of these critical functionalities. For DNA detection, our platforms employ label-free, single-step, and sequence-specific electrochemical DNA (E-DNA) sensors, in which an electrode-bound, redox-reporter-modified DNA "probe" generates a current change after undergoing a hybridization-induced conformational change. After successfully integrating E-DNA sensors into a microfluidic chip format, we subsequently incorporated on-chip genetic amplification techniques including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) to enable genetic detection at clinically relevant target concentrations. To maximize the potential point-of-care utility of our platforms, we have further integrated sample preparation via immunomagnetic separation, which allowed the detection of influenza virus directly from throat swabs and developed strategies for the multiplexed detection of related bacterial strains from the blood of septic mice. Finally, we developed an alternative electrochemical detection platform based on real-time LAMP, which not is only capable of detecting across a broad dynamic range of target concentrations, but also greatly simplifies quantitative measurement of nucleic acids. These efforts represent considerable progress toward the development of a true sample-in-answer-out platform for genetic detection of pathogens at the point of care. Given the many advantages of these systems, and the growing interest and innovative contributions from researchers in this field, we are optimistic that iterations of these systems will arrive in clinical settings in the foreseeable future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuangwen Hsieh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, ‡Institute
for Collaborative Biotechnologies, §Interdepartmental Program in Biomolecular
Science and Engineering, ∥Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and ⊥Materials
Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - B. Scott Ferguson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, ‡Institute
for Collaborative Biotechnologies, §Interdepartmental Program in Biomolecular
Science and Engineering, ∥Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and ⊥Materials
Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Michael Eisenstein
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, ‡Institute
for Collaborative Biotechnologies, §Interdepartmental Program in Biomolecular
Science and Engineering, ∥Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and ⊥Materials
Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kevin W. Plaxco
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, ‡Institute
for Collaborative Biotechnologies, §Interdepartmental Program in Biomolecular
Science and Engineering, ∥Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and ⊥Materials
Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - H. Tom Soh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, ‡Institute
for Collaborative Biotechnologies, §Interdepartmental Program in Biomolecular
Science and Engineering, ∥Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and ⊥Materials
Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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Strohmeier O, Keller M, Schwemmer F, Zehnle S, Mark D, von Stetten F, Zengerle R, Paust N. Centrifugal microfluidic platforms: advanced unit operations and applications. Chem Soc Rev 2015; 44:6187-229. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cs00371c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Review on miniaturization, integration, and automation of laboratory processes within centrifugal microfluidic platforms. For efficient implementation of applications, building blocks are categorized into unit operations and process chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- O. Strohmeier
- Hahn-Schickard
- 79110 Freiburg
- Germany
- Laboratory for MEMS Applications
- IMTEK – Department of Microsystems Engineering
| | - M. Keller
- Hahn-Schickard
- 79110 Freiburg
- Germany
- Laboratory for MEMS Applications
- IMTEK – Department of Microsystems Engineering
| | - F. Schwemmer
- Laboratory for MEMS Applications
- IMTEK – Department of Microsystems Engineering
- University of Freiburg
- 79110 Freiburg
- Germany
| | | | - D. Mark
- Hahn-Schickard
- 79110 Freiburg
- Germany
- Laboratory for MEMS Applications
- IMTEK – Department of Microsystems Engineering
| | - F. von Stetten
- Hahn-Schickard
- 79110 Freiburg
- Germany
- Laboratory for MEMS Applications
- IMTEK – Department of Microsystems Engineering
| | - R. Zengerle
- Hahn-Schickard
- 79110 Freiburg
- Germany
- Laboratory for MEMS Applications
- IMTEK – Department of Microsystems Engineering
| | - N. Paust
- Hahn-Schickard
- 79110 Freiburg
- Germany
- Laboratory for MEMS Applications
- IMTEK – Department of Microsystems Engineering
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29
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Lu Y, Liu T, Lamanda AC, Sin MLY, Gau V, Liao JC, Wong PK. AC Electrokinetics of Physiological Fluids for Biomedical Applications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 20:611-20. [PMID: 25487557 DOI: 10.1177/2211068214560904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Alternating current (AC) electrokinetics is a collection of processes for manipulating bulk fluid mass and embedded objects with AC electric fields. The ability of AC electrokinetics to implement the major microfluidic operations, such as pumping, mixing, concentration, and separation, makes it possible to develop integrated systems for clinical diagnostics in nontraditional health care settings. The high conductivity of physiological fluids presents new challenges and opportunities for AC electrokinetics-based diagnostic systems. In this review, AC electrokinetic phenomena in conductive physiological fluids are described followed by a review of the basic microfluidic operations and the recent biomedical applications of AC electrokinetics. The future prospects of AC electrokinetics for clinical diagnostics are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Lu
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Tingting Liu
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Ariana C Lamanda
- Biomedical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Mandy L Y Sin
- Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | | | - Joseph C Liao
- Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Pak Kin Wong
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA Biomedical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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30
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Abstract
Sampling--the process of collecting, preparing, and introducing an appropriate volume element (voxel) into a system--is often underappreciated and pushed behind the scenes in lab-on-a-chip research. What often stands in the way between proof-of-principle demonstrations of potentially exciting technology and its broader dissemination and actual use, however, is the effectiveness of sample collection and preparation. The power of micro- and nanofluidics to improve reactions, sensing, separation, and cell culture cannot be accessed if sampling is not equally efficient and reliable. This perspective will highlight recent successes as well as assess current challenges and opportunities in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Labuz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Biointerfaces Institute, 2800 Plymouth Rd, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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31
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Nichols JE, Niles JA, Vega SP, Argueta LB, Eastaway A, Cortiella J. Modeling the lung: Design and development of tissue engineered macro- and micro-physiologic lung models for research use. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2014; 239:1135-69. [PMID: 24962174 DOI: 10.1177/1535370214536679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory tract specific cell populations, or tissue engineered in vitro grown human lung, have the potential to be used as research tools to mimic physiology, toxicology, pathology, as well as infectious diseases responses of cells or tissues. Studies related to respiratory tract pathogenesis or drug toxicity testing in the past made use of basic systems where single cell populations were exposed to test agents followed by evaluations of simple cellular responses. Although these simple single-cell-type systems provided good basic information related to cellular responses, much more can be learned from cells grown in fabricated microenvironments which mimic in vivo conditions in specialized microfabricated chambers or by human tissue engineered three-dimensional (3D) models which allow for more natural interactions between cells. Recent advances in microengineering technology, microfluidics, and tissue engineering have provided a new approach to the development of 2D and 3D cell culture models which enable production of more robust human in vitro respiratory tract models. Complex models containing multiple cell phenotypes also provide a more reasonable approximation of what occurs in vivo without the confounding elements in the dynamic in vivo environment. The goal of engineering good 3D human models is the formation of physiologically functional respiratory tissue surrogates which can be used as pathogenesis models or in the case of 2D screening systems for drug therapy evaluation as well as human toxicity testing. We hope that this manuscript will serve as a guide for development of future respiratory tract model systems as well as a review of conventional models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan E Nichols
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA University of Texas Medical Branch, School of Medicine, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA
| | - Jean A Niles
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA
| | - Stephanie P Vega
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA
| | - Lissenya B Argueta
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA
| | - Adriene Eastaway
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA University of Texas Medical Branch, School of Medicine, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA
| | - Joaquin Cortiella
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Department of Anesthesiology, Galveston, TX 77555-0435, USA
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32
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Van Heirstraeten L, Spang P, Schwind C, Drese KS, Ritzi-Lehnert M, Nieto B, Camps M, Landgraf B, Guasch F, Corbera AH, Samitier J, Goossens H, Malhotra-Kumar S, Roeser T. Integrated DNA and RNA extraction and purification on an automated microfluidic cassette from bacterial and viral pathogens causing community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections. LAB ON A CHIP 2014; 14:1519-26. [PMID: 24615272 DOI: 10.1039/c3lc51339d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we describe the development of an automated sample preparation procedure for etiological agents of community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections (CA-LRTI). The consecutive assay steps, including sample re-suspension, pre-treatment, lysis, nucleic acid purification, and concentration, were integrated into a microfluidic lab-on-a-chip (LOC) cassette that is operated hands-free by a demonstrator setup, providing fluidic and valve actuation. The performance of the assay was evaluated on viral and Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial broth cultures previously sampled using a nasopharyngeal swab. Sample preparation on the microfluidic cassette resulted in higher or similar concentrations of pure bacterial DNA or viral RNA compared to manual benchtop experiments. The miniaturization and integration of the complete sample preparation procedure, to extract purified nucleic acids from real samples of CA-LRTI pathogens to, and above, lab quality and efficiency, represent important steps towards its application in a point-of-care test (POCT) for rapid diagnosis of CA-LRTI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesbet Van Heirstraeten
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Vaccine & Infectious Disease Institute (VAXINFECTIO), Universiteit Antwerpen, Antwerp, Belgium
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33
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Sin MLY, Mach KE, Wong PK, Liao JC. Advances and challenges in biosensor-based diagnosis of infectious diseases. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2014; 14:225-44. [PMID: 24524681 DOI: 10.1586/14737159.2014.888313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Rapid diagnosis of infectious diseases and timely initiation of appropriate treatment are critical determinants that promote optimal clinical outcomes and general public health. Conventional in vitro diagnostics for infectious diseases are time-consuming and require centralized laboratories, experienced personnel and bulky equipment. Recent advances in biosensor technologies have potential to deliver point-of-care diagnostics that match or surpass conventional standards in regards to time, accuracy and cost. Broadly classified as either label-free or labeled, modern biosensors exploit micro- and nanofabrication technologies and diverse sensing strategies including optical, electrical and mechanical transducers. Despite clinical need, translation of biosensors from research laboratories to clinical applications has remained limited to a few notable examples, such as the glucose sensor. Challenges to be overcome include sample preparation, matrix effects and system integration. We review the advances of biosensors for infectious disease diagnostics and discuss the critical challenges that need to be overcome in order to implement integrated diagnostic biosensors in real world settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandy L Y Sin
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine , Stanford, CA 94305-5118 , USA
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34
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Ritzi-Lehnert M. Development of chip-compatible sample preparation for diagnosis of infectious diseases. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2014; 12:189-206. [DOI: 10.1586/erm.11.98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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35
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Liu T, Sin MLY, Pyne JD, Gau V, Liao JC, Wong PK. Electrokinetic stringency control in self-assembled monolayer-based biosensors for multiplex urinary tract infection diagnosis. NANOMEDICINE : NANOTECHNOLOGY, BIOLOGY, AND MEDICINE 2014; 10:159-66. [PMID: 23891989 PMCID: PMC3858494 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2013.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2013] [Revised: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Rapid detection of bacterial pathogens is critical toward judicious management of infectious diseases. Herein, we demonstrate an in situ electrokinetic stringency control approach for a self-assembled monolayer-based electrochemical biosensor toward urinary tract infection diagnosis. The in situ electrokinetic stringency control technique generates Joule heating induced temperature rise and electrothermal fluid motion directly on the sensor to improve its performance for detecting bacterial 16S rRNA, a phylogenetic biomarker. The dependence of the hybridization efficiency reveals that in situ electrokinetic stringency control is capable of discriminating single-base mismatches. With electrokinetic stringency control, the background noise due to the matrix effects of clinical urine samples can be reduced by 60%. The applicability of the system is demonstrated by multiplex detection of three uropathogenic clinical isolates with similar 16S rRNA sequences. The results demonstrate that electrokinetic stringency control can significantly improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the biosensor for multiplex urinary tract infection diagnosis. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR Urinary tract infections remain a significant cause of mortality and morbidity as secondary conditions often related to chronic diseases or to immunosuppression. Rapid and sensitive identification of the causative organisms is critical in the appropriate management of this condition. These investigators demonstrate an in situ electrokinetic stringency control approach for a self-assembled monolayer-based electrochemical biosensor toward urinary tract infection diagnosis, establishing that such an approach significantly improves the biosensor's signal-to-noise ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Liu
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Mandy L Y Sin
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jeff D Pyne
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | | | - Joseph C Liao
- Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Pak Kin Wong
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
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36
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Ouyang M, Mohan R, Lu Y, Liu T, Mach KE, Sin MLY, McComb M, Joshi J, Gau V, Wong PK, Liao JC. An AC electrokinetics facilitated biosensor cassette for rapid pathogen identification. Analyst 2013; 138:3660-6. [PMID: 23626988 DOI: 10.1039/c3an00259d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
To develop a portable point-of-care system based on biosensors for common infectious diseases such as urinary tract infection, the sensing process needs to be implemented within an enclosed fluidic system. On chip sample preparation of clinical samples remains a significant obstacle to achieving robust sensor performance. Herein AC electrokinetics is applied in an electrochemical biosensor cassette to enhance molecular convection and hybridization efficiency through electrokinetics induced fluid motion and Joule heating induced temperature elevation. Using E. coli as an exemplary pathogen, we determined the optimal electrokinetic parameters for detecting bacterial 16S rRNA in the biosensor cassette based on the current output, signal-to-noise ratio, and limit of detection. In addition, a panel of six probe sets targeting common uropathogenic bacteria was demonstrated. The optimized parameters were also validated using patient-derived clinical urine samples. The effectiveness of electrokinetics for on chip sample preparation will facilitate the implementation of point-of-care diagnosis of urinary tract infection in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengxing Ouyang
- Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5118, USA
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37
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Hartman MR, Ruiz RCH, Hamada S, Xu C, Yancey KG, Yu Y, Han W, Luo D. Point-of-care nucleic acid detection using nanotechnology. NANOSCALE 2013; 5:10141-54. [PMID: 24057263 DOI: 10.1039/c3nr04015a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Recent developments in nanotechnology have led to significant advancements in point-of-care (POC) nucleic acid detection. The ability to sense DNA and RNA in a portable format leads to important applications for a range of settings, from on-site detection in the field to bedside diagnostics, in both developing and developed countries. We review recent innovations in three key process components for nucleic acid detection: sample preparation, target amplification, and read-out modalities. We discuss how the advancements realized by nanotechnology are making POC nucleic acid detection increasingly applicable for decentralized and accessible testing, in particular for the developing world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Hartman
- Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA.
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38
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Sin MLY, Gau V, Liao JC, Wong PK. A Universal Electrode Approach for Automated Electrochemical Molecular Analyses. JOURNAL OF MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS : A JOINT IEEE AND ASME PUBLICATION ON MICROSTRUCTURES, MICROACTUATORS, MICROSENSORS, AND MICROSYSTEMS 2013; 22:1126-1132. [PMID: 24860248 PMCID: PMC4028488 DOI: 10.1109/jmems.2013.2253545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Transforming microfluidics-based biosensing systems from laboratory research into clinical reality remains an elusive goal despite decades of intensive research. A fundamental obstacle for the development of fully automated microfluidic diagnostic systems is the lack of an effective strategy for combining pumping, sample preparation, and detection modules into an integrated biosensing platform. Herein, we report a universal electrode approach, which incorporates DC electrolytic pumping, AC electrokinetic sample preparation, and self-assembled monolayer based electrochemical sensing on a single microfluidic platform, to automate complicated molecular analysis procedures that will enable biosensing applications in non-traditional healthcare settings. Using the universal electrode approach, major microfluidic operations required in molecular analyses, such as pumping, mixing, washing, and sensing can be performed in a single platform. We demonstrate the universal electrode platform for detecting bacterial 16S rRNA, a phylogenetic marker, toward rapid diagnostics of urinary tract infection. Since only electronic interfaces are required to operate the platform, the universal electrode approach represents an effective system integration strategy to realize the potential of microfluidics in molecular diagnostics at the point of care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandy L. Y. Sin
- Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA. She is currently with the Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA ()
| | - Vincent Gau
- GeneFluidics Inc., Irwindale, CA 91010 USA )
| | - Joseph C. Liao
- Department of Urology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 USA ()
| | - P. K. Wong
- Corresponding author. Address: University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 USA. Phone: 520-626-2215; fax: 520-621-8191;
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39
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Yafouz B, Kadri NA, Ibrahim F. Microarray dot electrodes utilizing dielectrophoresis for cell characterization. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2013; 13:9029-46. [PMID: 23857266 PMCID: PMC3758635 DOI: 10.3390/s130709029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Revised: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
During the last three decades; dielectrophoresis (DEP) has become a vital tool for cell manipulation and characterization due to its non-invasiveness. It is very useful in the trend towards point-of-care systems. Currently, most efforts are focused on using DEP in biomedical applications, such as the spatial manipulation of cells, the selective separation or enrichment of target cells, high-throughput molecular screening, biosensors and immunoassays. A significant amount of research on DEP has produced a wide range of microelectrode configurations. In this paper; we describe the microarray dot electrode, a promising electrode geometry to characterize and manipulate cells via DEP. The advantages offered by this type of microelectrode are also reviewed. The protocol for fabricating planar microelectrodes using photolithography is documented to demonstrate the fast and cost-effective fabrication process. Additionally; different state-of-the-art Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC) devices that have been proposed for DEP applications in the literature are reviewed. We also present our recently designed LOC device, which uses an improved microarray dot electrode configuration to address the challenges facing other devices. This type of LOC system has the capability to boost the implementation of DEP technology in practical settings such as clinical cell sorting, infection diagnosis, and enrichment of particle populations for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bashar Yafouz
- Medical Informatics and Biological Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MIMEMS) Specialized Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; E-Mails: (B.Y.); (F.I.)
| | - Nahrizul Adib Kadri
- Medical Informatics and Biological Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MIMEMS) Specialized Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; E-Mails: (B.Y.); (F.I.)
| | - Fatimah Ibrahim
- Medical Informatics and Biological Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MIMEMS) Specialized Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; E-Mails: (B.Y.); (F.I.)
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40
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Nge PN, Rogers CI, Woolley AT. Advances in microfluidic materials, functions, integration, and applications. Chem Rev 2013; 113:2550-83. [PMID: 23410114 PMCID: PMC3624029 DOI: 10.1021/cr300337x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 515] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pamela N. Nge
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602
| | - Chad I. Rogers
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602
| | - Adam T. Woolley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602
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41
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Sin MLY, Gau V, Liao JC, Wong PK. Integrated microfluidic systems for molecular diagnostics: A universal electrode platform for rapid diagnosis of urinary tract infections. IEEE NANOTECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE 2013. [DOI: 10.1109/mnano.2012.2237331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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42
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Lu Y, Gao J, Zhang DD, Gau V, Liao JC, Wong PK. Single cell antimicrobial susceptibility testing by confined microchannels and electrokinetic loading. Anal Chem 2013; 85:3971-6. [PMID: 23445209 DOI: 10.1021/ac4004248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant pathogens are an emerging global health problem. In addition to the need of developing new antibiotics in the pipeline, the ability to rapidly determine the antibiotic resistance profiles of bacteria represents one of the most crucial steps toward the management of infectious diseases and the prevention of multidrug-resistant pathogens. Here, we report a single cell antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) approach for rapid determination of the antibiotic resistance of bacterial pathogens. By confining individual bacteria in gas permeable microchannels with dimensions comparable to a single bacterium, the antibiotic resistance of the bacteria can be monitored in real-time at the single cell level. To facilitate the dynamic loading of the bacteria into the confined microchannels for observation, AC electrokinetics is demonstrated for capturing bacteria to defined locations in high-conductivity AST buffer. The electrokinetic technique achieves a loading efficiency of about 75% with a negligible effect on the bacterial growth rate. To optimize the protocol for single cell AST, the bacterial growth rate of individual bacteria under different antibiotic conditions has been determined systematically. The applicability of single cell AST is demonstrated by the rapid determination of the antimicrobial resistant profiles of uropathogenic clinical isolates in Mueller-Hinton media and in urine. The antibiotic resistance profiles of bacteria can be determined in less than 1 h compared to days in standard culture-based AST techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Lu
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
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Gao JG, Riahi R, Sin MLY, Zhang S, Wong PK. Electrokinetic focusing and separation of mammalian cells in conductive biological fluids. Analyst 2012; 137:5215-21. [PMID: 22937529 PMCID: PMC4086461 DOI: 10.1039/c2an35707k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Active manipulation of cells, such as trapping, focusing, and isolation, is essential for various bioanalytical applications. Herein, we report a hybrid electrokinetic technique for manipulating mammalian cells in physiological fluids. This technique applies a combination of negative dielectrophoretic force and hydrodynamic drag force induced by electrohydrodynamics, which is effective in conductive biological fluids. With a three-electrode configuration, the stable equilibrium positions of cells can be adjusted for separation and focusing applications. Cancer cells and white blood cells can be positioned and isolated into specific locations in the microchannel under both static and dynamic flow conditions. To investigate the sensitivity of the hybrid electrokinetic process, AC voltage, frequency, and bias dependences of the cell velocity were studied systematically. The applicability of the hybrid electrokinetic technique for manipulating cells in physiological samples is demonstrated by continuous focusing of human breast adenocarcinoma spiked in urine, buffy coats, and processed blood samples with 98% capture efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Gao Gao
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Shandong Polytechnic University, Jinan 250353, China
| | - Reza Riahi
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
| | - Mandy L. Y. Sin
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
- Department of Urology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, 94304, USA
| | - Shufeng Zhang
- Department of Physics, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
| | - Pak Kin Wong
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
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Gubala V, Harris LF, Ricco AJ, Tan MX, Williams DE. Point of Care Diagnostics: Status and Future. Anal Chem 2011; 84:487-515. [DOI: 10.1021/ac2030199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 832] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Gubala
- Biomedical Diagnostics Institute, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Leanne F. Harris
- Biomedical Diagnostics Institute, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Antonio J. Ricco
- Biomedical Diagnostics Institute, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Ming X. Tan
- Biomedical Diagnostics Institute, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - David E. Williams
- Biomedical Diagnostics Institute, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
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Clinical validation of integrated nucleic acid and protein detection on an electrochemical biosensor array for urinary tract infection diagnosis. PLoS One 2011; 6:e26846. [PMID: 22066011 PMCID: PMC3204982 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 10/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common infection that poses a substantial healthcare burden, yet its definitive diagnosis can be challenging. There is a need for a rapid, sensitive and reliable analytical method that could allow early detection of UTI and reduce unnecessary antibiotics. Pathogen identification along with quantitative detection of lactoferrin, a measure of pyuria, may provide useful information towards the overall diagnosis of UTI. Here, we report an integrated biosensor platform capable of simultaneous pathogen identification and detection of urinary biomarker that could aid the effectiveness of the treatment and clinical management. Methodology/Principal Findings The integrated pathogen 16S rRNA and host lactoferrin detection using the biosensor array was performed on 113 clinical urine samples collected from patients at risk for complicated UTI. For pathogen detection, the biosensor used sandwich hybridization of capture and detector oligonucleotides to the target analyte, bacterial 16S rRNA. For detection of the protein biomarker, the biosensor used an analogous electrochemical sandwich assay based on capture and detector antibodies. For this assay, a set of oligonucleotide probes optimized for hybridization at 37°C to facilitate integration with the immunoassay was developed. This probe set targeted common uropathogens including E. coli, P. mirabilis, P. aeruginosa and Enterococcus spp. as well as less common uropathogens including Serratia, Providencia, Morganella and Staphylococcus spp. The biosensor assay for pathogen detection had a specificity of 97% and a sensitivity of 89%. A significant correlation was found between LTF concentration measured by the biosensor and WBC and leukocyte esterase (p<0.001 for both). Conclusion/Significance We successfully demonstrate simultaneous detection of nucleic acid and host immune marker on a single biosensor array in clinical samples. This platform can be used for multiplexed detection of nucleic acid and protein as the next generation of urinary tract infection diagnostics.
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Marques MP, Fernandes P. Microfluidic devices: useful tools for bioprocess intensification. Molecules 2011; 16:8368-401. [PMID: 21963626 PMCID: PMC6264232 DOI: 10.3390/molecules16108368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2011] [Revised: 09/21/2011] [Accepted: 09/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The dawn of the new millennium saw a trend towards the dedicated use of microfluidic devices for process intensification in biotechnology. As the last decade went by, it became evident that this pattern was not a short-lived fad, since the deliverables related to this field of research have been consistently piling-up. The application of process intensification in biotechnology is therefore seemingly catching up with the trend already observed in the chemical engineering area, where the use of microfluidic devices has already been upgraded to production scale. The goal of the present work is therefore to provide an updated overview of the developments centered on the use of microfluidic devices for process intensification in biotechnology. Within such scope, particular focus will be given to different designs, configurations and modes of operation of microreactors, but reference to similar features regarding microfluidic devices in downstream processing will not be overlooked. Engineering considerations and fluid dynamics issues, namely related to the characterization of flow in microchannels, promotion of micromixing and predictive tools, will also be addressed, as well as reflection on the analytics required to take full advantage of the possibilities provided by microfluidic devices in process intensification. Strategies developed to ease the implementation of experimental set-ups anchored in the use of microfluidic devices will be briefly tackled. Finally, realistic considerations on the current advantages and limitation on the use of microfluidic devices for process intensification, as well as prospective near future developments in the field, will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco P.C. Marques
- Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- IBB-Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering, IST, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Pedro Fernandes
- Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- IBB-Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering, IST, Lisboa, Portugal
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