Factors associated with access to HIV care and treatment in a prevention of mother to child transmission programme in urban Zimbabwe

HIV viral load non-suppression and associated factors among pregnant and postpartum women in rural northeastern South Africa: a cross-sectional survey

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to measure the prevalence of maternal HIV viral load (VL) non-suppression and assess associated factors, to evaluate progress towards United Nations-AIDS (UNAIDS) targets.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

The eight largest community health centres of Ehlanzeni, a rural district in northeast South Africa.

PARTICIPANTS

Pregnant women living with HIV (WLHIV) in their third trimester and postpartum WLHIV and their biological infants, recruited equally across all stages of the first 24 months post partum, were included. A sample of 612 mothers participated from a target of 1000.

PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome was maternal VL (mVL) non-suppression (defined here as mVL >1000 copies/mL). We collected information on antiretroviral use, healthcare visits and sociodemographics through interviews and measured plasma mVL. Descriptive statistics, χ2 tests and multivariable logistic regression analysis were conducted.

RESULTS

All mothers (median age: 30 years) were on antiretroviral therapy (ART) and 24.9% were on ART ≤12 months. The prevalence of mVL non-suppression was 14.7% (95% CI: 11.3% to 19.0%), while 13.8% had low-level viraemia (50-1000 copies/mL). Most (68.9%) women had initiated breast feeding and 37.6% were currently breast feeding their infants. Being younger than 25 years (adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 2.6 (95% CI: 1.1 to 6.4)), on first-line ART (AOR: 2.3 (95% CI: 1.1 to 4.6)) and married/cohabiting (AOR: 1.9 (95% CI: 1.0 to 3.7)) were significantly associated with increased odds of mVL non-suppression.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of mVL ≤1000 copies/mL of 85.3% among pregnant and postpartum WLHIV and attending public healthcare centres in this rural district is below the 2020 90-90-90 and 2030 95-95-95 UNAIDS targets. Given that low-level viraemia may also increase the risk of vertical HIV transmission, we recommend strengthened implementation of the new guidelines which include better ART options, improved ART regimen switching and mVL monitoring schedules, and intensified psychosocial support for younger women, while exploring district-level complementary interventions, to sustain VLs below 50 copies/mL among all women.

Strengthening service integration for effective linkage of HIV-positive mothers to antiretroviral treatment: a cross-sectional study in two military health facilities in Kaduna, Nigeria, 2014

Introduction

strong PMTCT-ART service linkages ensure continuity of care for healthier mothers and children born HIV free. Program data showed weak PMTCT- ART linkages in military health facilities. We conducted a study to assess the PMTCT-adult ART service linkage in two Nigerian military health facilities in Kaduna State.

Methods

we conducted a cross-sectional study using mixed methods (interviews and FGDs) in 44 Nigeria Army Reference Hospital (NARH) and 1 Division Hospital, Kaduna. We studied 372 HIV-positive mothers after a delivery of their babies, referred for ART services from January 2009 to December 2013. We conducted FGDs among ANC, PMTCT and ART clinics staff. We analysed data using descriptive and inferential methods. A p-value of < 0.05 was considered significant with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for estimates.

Results

of the 372 respondents studied, 320 (86%) accessed PMTCT services from the 44 NARH. Most respondents (206,55.4%) respondents aged < 25 years. One in six (16.7%) respondents had no record of referral. Delivering baby in a separate facility from where PMTCT services were accessed, increased the likelihood of not accessing ART services (odd ratio [OR]: 6.7, 95% CI= 3.3 -13.6). The qualitative study identified poor service integration between PMTCT and ANC clinics.

Conclusion

the key factors hindering PMTCT-ART linkage in military health facilities included poor service integration, clients delivering of a baby in a facility separate from where PMTCT services were accessed. The Ministry of Defence HIV programme should strengthen ANC-PMTCT-ART service integration through a centrally coordinated client information management system.

HIV viral suppression and geospatial patterns of HIV antiretroviral therapy treatment facility use in Rakai, Uganda

OBJECTIVE

To assess geospatial patterns of HIV antiretroviral therapy (ART) treatment facility use and whether they were impacted by viral load suppression.

METHODS

We extracted data on the location and type of care services utilized by HIV-positive persons accessing ART between February 2015 and September 2016 from the Rakai Community Cohort Study in Uganda. The distance from Rakai Community Cohort Study households to facilities offering ART was calculated using the open street map road network. Modified Poisson regression was used to identify predictors of distance traveled and, for those traveling beyond their nearest facility, the probability of accessing services from a tertiary care facility.

RESULTS

In total, 1554 HIV-positive participants were identified, of whom 68% had initiated ART. The median distance from households to the nearest ART facility was 3.10 km (interquartile range, 1.65-5.05), but the median distance traveled was 5.26 km (interquartile range, 3.00-10.03, P < 0.001) and 57% of individuals travelled further than their nearest facility for ART. Those with higher education and wealth were more likely to travel further. In total, 93% of persons on ART were virally suppressed, and there was no difference in the distance traveled to an ART facility between those with suppressed and unsuppressed viral loads (5.26 vs. 5.27 km, P = 0.650).

CONCLUSION

Distance traveled to HIV clinics was increased with higher socioeconomic status, suggesting that wealthier individuals exercise greater choice. However, distance traveled did not vary by those who were or were not virally suppressed.

Acceptability of lifelong treatment among HIV-positive pregnant and breastfeeding women (Option B+) in selected health facilities in Zimbabwe: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Zimbabwe's Ministry of Health and Child Care (MOHCC) adopted 2013 World Health Organization (WHO) prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) guidelines recommending initiation of HIV-positive pregnant and breastfeeding women (PPBW) on lifelong antiretroviral treatment (ART) irrespective of clinical stage (Option B+). Option B+ was officially launched in Zimbabwe in November 2013; however the acceptability of life-long ART and its potential uptake among women was not known.

METHODS

A qualitative study was conducted at selected sites in Harare (urban) and Zvimba (rural) to explore Option B+ acceptability; barriers, and facilitators to ART adherence and service uptake. In-depth interviews (IDIs), focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted with PPBW, healthcare providers, and community members. All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated; data were coded and analyzed in MaxQDA v10.

RESULTS

Forty-three IDIs, 22 FGDs, and five KIIs were conducted. The majority of women accepted lifelong ART. There was however, a fear of commitment to taking lifelong medication because they were afraid of defaulting, especially after cessation of breastfeeding. There was confusion around dosage; and fear of side effects, not having enough food to take drugs, and the lack of opportunities to ask questions in counseling. Participants reported the need for strengthening community sensitization for Option B+. Facilitators included receiving a simplified pill regimen; ability to continue breastfeeding beyond 6 months like HIV-negative women; and partner, community and health worker support. Barriers included distance of health facility, non-disclosure of HIV status, poor male partner support and knowing someone who had negative experience on ART.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that Option B+ is generally accepted among PPBW as a means to strengthen their health and protect their babies. Consistent with previous literature, this study demonstrated the importance of male partner and community support in satisfactory adherence to ART and enhancing counseling techniques. Strengthening community sensitization and male knowledge is critical to encourage women to disclose their HIV status and ensure successful adherence to ART. Targeting and engaging partners of women will remain key determinants to women's acceptance and adherence on ART under Option B+.

Correlates of facility delivery for rural HIV-positive pregnant women enrolled in the MoMent Nigeria prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Low rates of maternal healthcare service utilization, including facility delivery, may impede progress in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) and in reducing maternal and infant mortality. The MoMent (Mother Mentor) study investigated the impact of structured peer support on early infant diagnosis presentation and postpartum maternal retention in PMTCT care in rural Nigeria. This paper describes baseline characteristics and correlates of facility delivery among MoMent study participants.

METHODS

HIV-positive pregnant women were recruited at 20 rural Primary Healthcare Centers matched by antenatal care clinic volume, client HIV prevalence, and PMTCT service staffing. Baseline and delivery data were collected by participant interviews and medical record abstraction. Multivariate logistic regression with generalized estimating equation analysis was used to evaluate for correlates of facility delivery including exposure to structured (closely supervised Mentor Mother, intervention) vs unstructured (routine, control) peer support.

RESULTS

Of 497 women enrolled, 352 (71%) were between 21 and 30 years old, 319 (64%) were Christian, 245 (49%) had received secondary or higher education, 402 (81%) were multigravidae and 299 (60%) newly HIV-diagnosed. Delivery data was available for 445 (90%) participants, and 276 (62%) of these women delivered at a health facility. Facility delivery did not differ by type of peer support; however, it was positively associated with secondary or greater education (aOR 1.9, CI 1.1-3.2) and Christian affiliation (OR 1.4, CI 1.0-2.0) and negatively associated with primigravidity (OR 0.5; 0.3-0.9) and new HIV diagnosis (OR 0.6, CI 0.4-0.9).

CONCLUSIONS

Primary-level or lesser-educated HIV-infected pregnant women and those newly-diagnosed and primigravid should be prioritized for interventions to improve facility delivery rates and ultimately, healthy outcomes. Incremental gains in facility delivery from structured peer support appear limited, however the impact of duration of pre-delivery support needs further investigation. Religious influences on facility delivery and on general maternal healthcare service utilization need to be further explored.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT01936753 , registered September 2013.

Predictors of Patient Dissatisfaction with Services for Prevention of Mother-To-Child Transmission of HIV in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Background

Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV remains a major source of new HIV infections in children. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) using lifelong antiretroviral treatment (ART) for all pregnant and breastfeeding women living with HIV (Option B+) is the major strategy for eliminating paediatric HIV. Ensuring that patients are satisfied with PMTCT services is important for optimizing uptake, adherence and retention in treatment.

Methods

We conducted a facility based quantitative cross-sectional survey in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, between March and April 2014, when the country was transitioning to the implementation of PMTCT Option B+. We interviewed 595 pregnant and breastfeeding women living with HIV, who received PMTCT care in 36 public health facilities. Predictors of overall dissatisfaction with PMTCT services were identified using a multiple logistic regression.

Results

Overall 8% of the patients expressed dissatisfaction with PMTCT services. Patients who perceived health care workers (HCW) communication skills as poor, had a 5-fold (OR 4.9, 95% CI 1.8–13.4) increased risk of dissatisfaction and those who perceived HCW capacity to understand client concerns as poor, had a 6-fold (OR 5.7, 95% CI 2.3–14.0) increased risk. Having a total visit time longer than two hours was associated with a 2-fold increased risk of being dissatisfied (OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.1–4.7). Every 30-minute increment in total visit time was associated with a 10% higher (OR 1.1, 95% CI 1.0–1.2) risk of being dissatisfied. The probability of being dissatisfied ranged from 4% (95% CI 2% - 6%) in the presence of patient-perceived good communication, good understanding of patient concerns, and a total visit time below two hours, to 70% (95% CI 47% - 86%) if HCW failed in all of these aspects.

Conclusion

Patient dissatisfaction with PMTCT services was generally low; reflecting that quality of care was maintained during Tanzania’s transition to Option B+ strategy aiming to increase the number of women initiating life-long ART in PMTCT clinics. Improved HCW communication with clients, their understanding of patient concerns and a reduction of the total visit time would further optimize women’s overall satisfaction with PMTCT services in Tanzania.

People living with HIV travel farther to access healthcare: a population-based geographic analysis from rural Uganda

Introduction

The availability of specialized HIV services is limited in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa where the need is the greatest. Where HIV services are available, people living with HIV (PLHIV) must overcome large geographic, economic and social barriers to access healthcare. The objective of this study was to understand the unique barriers PLHIV face when accessing healthcare compared with those not living with HIV in a rural area of sub-Saharan Africa with limited availability of healthcare infrastructure.

Methods

We conducted a population-based cross-sectional study of 447 heads of household on Bugala Island, Uganda. Multiple linear regression models were used to compare travel time, cost and distance to access healthcare, and log binomial models were used to test for associations between HIV status and access to nearby health services.

Results

PLHIV travelled an additional 1.9 km (95% CI (0.6, 3.2 km), p=0.004) to access healthcare compared with those not living with HIV, and they were 56% less likely to access healthcare at the nearest health facility to their residence, so long as that facility lacked antiretroviral therapy (ART) services (aRR=0.44, 95% CI (0.24 to 0.83), p=0.011). We found no evidence that PLHIV travelled further for care if the nearest facility supplies ART services (aRR=0.95, 95% CI (0.86 to 1.05), p=0.328). Among those who reported uptake of care at one of two facilities on the island that provides ART (81% of PLHIV and 68% of HIV-negative individuals), PLHIV tended to seek care at a higher tiered facility that provides ART, even when this facility was not their closest facility (30% of PLHIV travelled further than the closest ART facility compared with 16% of HIV-negative individuals), and travelled an additional 2.2 km (p=0.001) to access that facility, relative to HIV-negative individuals (aRR=1.91, 95% CI (1.00 to 3.65), p=0.05). Among PLHIV, residential distance was associated with access to facilities providing ART (RR=0.78, 95% CI (0.61 to 0.99), p=0.044, comparing residential distances of 3–5 km to 0–2 km; RR=0.71, 95% CI (0.58 to 0.87), p=0.001, comparing residential distances of 6–10 km to 0–2 km).

Conclusions

PLHIV travel longer distances for care, a phenomenon that may be driven by both the limited availability of specialized HIV services and preference for higher tiered facilities.

Factors associated with access to HIV care services in eastern Uganda: the Kumi home based HIV counseling and testing program experience

Background

The HIV/AIDS health challenge continues to ravage many resource-constrained countries of the world. Approximately 75 % of all the global HIV/AIDS related deaths totaling 1.6 (1.4–1.9) million in 2012 occurred in sub-Saharan Africa, Uganda contributed 63,000 (52,000–81,000) to these deaths. Most of the morbidity and mortality associated with HIV/AIDS can be averted if individuals with HIV/AIDS have improved access to HIV care and treatment. The aim of this study therefore, was to explore the factors associated with access to HIV care services among HIV seropositive clients identified by a home based HIV counseling and testing program in Kumi district, eastern Uganda.

Methods

In a cross sectional study conducted in February 2009, we explored predictor variables: socio-demographics, health facility and community factors related to access to HIV care and treatment. The main outcome measure was reported receipt of cotrimoxazole for prophylaxis.

Results

The majority [81.1 % (284/350)] of respondents received cotrimoxazole prophylaxis (indicating access to HIV care). The main factors associated with access to HIV care include; age 25–34 years (AOR = 5.1, 95 % CI: 1.5–17.1), male sex (AOR = 2.3, 95 % CI: 1.2–4.4), urban residence (AOR = 2.5, CI: 1.1–5.9) and lack of family support (AOR = 0.5, CI: 0.2–0.9).

Conclusions

There was relatively high access to HIV care and treatment services at health facilities for HIV positive clients referred from the Kumi home based HIV counseling and testing program. The factors associated with access to HIV care services include; age group, sex, residence and having a supportive family. Stakeholders involved in providing HIV care and treatment services in similar settings should therefore consider these socio-demographic variables as they formulate interventions to improve access to HIV care services.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12875-015-0379-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A 'one-stop shop' approach in antenatal care: does this improve antiretroviral treatment uptake in Zimbabwe?

SETTING

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programme, Mpilo Hospital antenatal clinic, Zimbabwe.

OBJECTIVE

Before and after the introduction of a one-stop shop approach and task-shifting of antiretroviral treatment (ART) to midwives in the PMTCT programme, 1) to compare ART uptake and 2) to determine socio-demographic and other characteristics associated with non-initiation of ART post integration.

DESIGN

Before and after cohort study.

RESULTS

A total of 285 women were eligible for ART before the introduction of the one-stop approach and 280 after. Of the 285, 163 (57%) initiated ART before integration; this increased to 244/280 (87%) after integration (RR 1.5, 95% CI 1.4-1.7, P < 0.001). A total of 36 (13%) women did not initiate ART after integration; this was significantly associated with cotrimoxazole uptake (P = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

Integrating ART into antenatal care along with task-shifting to midwives considerably increased the uptake of ART. This provides further evidence for scaling up integration rapidly to other facilities in Zimbabwe, and is in line with the vision of a world where no child will be born with the human immunodeficiency virus by 2015.

Factors associated with uptake of services to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV in a community cohort in rural Tanzania

Objectives

This study aimed to identify factors associated with access to HIV care and antiretroviral (ARV) drugs for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV among HIV-positive pregnant women in a community cohort in rural Tanzania (Kisesa).

Methods

Kisesa-resident women who tested HIV-positive during HIV serosurveillance and were pregnant (while HIV-positive) between 2005 and 2012 were eligible. Community cohort records were linked to PMTCT and HIV clinic data from four facilities (PMTCT programme implemented in 2009; referrals to city-based hospitals since 2005) to ascertain service use. Factors associated with access to HIV care and ARVs during pregnancy were analysed using logistic regression.

Results

Overall, 24% of women accessed HIV care and 12% accessed ARVs during pregnancy (n=756 pregnancies to 420 women); these proportions increased over time. In multivariate analyses for 2005–2012, being married, prior voluntary counselling and testing, increasing age, increasing year of pregnancy and increasing duration of infection were independently associated with access to care and ARVs. Residence in roadside areas was an independent predictor of access to care but not ARVs. There was no evidence of an interaction with time period.

Conclusions

Access to PMTCT services was low in this rural setting but improved markedly over time. There were fairly few sociodemographic differentials although support for young women and those without partners may be needed. Further decentralisation of HIV services to more remote areas, promotion of voluntary counselling and testing and implementation of Option B+ are likely to improve uptake and may bring women into care and treatment sooner after infection.

Impact of support groups for people living with HIV on clinical outcomes: a systematic review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Support groups for people living with HIV are integrated into HIV care and treatment programs as a modality for increasing patient literacy and as an intervention to address the psychosocial needs of patients. However, the impact of support groups on key health outcomes has not been fully determined.

METHODS

We searched electronic databases from January 1995 through May 2014 and reviewed relevant literature on the impact of support groups on mortality, morbidity, retention in HIV care, quality of life (QOL), and ongoing HIV transmission, as well as their cost-effectiveness.

RESULTS

Of 1809 citations identified, 20 met the inclusion criteria. One reported on mortality, 7 on morbidity, 5 on retention in care, 7 on QOL, and 7 on ongoing HIV transmission. Eighteen (90%) of the articles reported largely positive results on the impact of support group interventions on key outcomes. Support groups were associated with reduced mortality and morbidity, increased retention in care, and improved QOL. Because of study limitations, the overall quality of evidence was rated as fair for mortality, morbidity, retention in care, and QOL, and poor for HIV transmission.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementing support groups as an intervention is expected to have a high impact on morbidity and retention in care and a moderate impact on mortality and QOL of people living with HIV. Support groups improve disclosure with potential prevention benefits but the impact on ongoing transmission is uncertain. It is unclear whether this intervention is cost-effective given the paucity of studies in this area.

Poor-quality health services and lack of programme support leads to low uptake of HIV testing in rural Mozambique

Mozambique has one of the world's highest burdens of HIV infection. Despite the increase in HIV-testing services throughout the country, the uptake has been low. To identify barriers to HIV testing we conducted a study in six rural districts in Zambézia Province. We recruited a total of 124 men and women from the community through purposeful sampling to participate in gender-specific focus group discussions about barriers to HIV testing. The participants noted three main barriers to HIV testing: 1) poor conduct by clinicians, including intentional disclosure of patients' HIV status to other community members; 2) unintentional disclosure of patients' HIV status through clinical practices; and, 3) a widespread fatalistic belief that HIV infection will result in death, particularly given poor access to adequate food. Improving quality and confidentiality within clinical service delivery, coupled with the introduction of food-supplement programmes should increase people's willingness to test and remain in care for HIV disease.

Evolution of antiretroviral therapy services for HIV-infected pregnant women in Cape Town, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Approaches to antiretroviral therapy (ART) in HIV-infected pregnant women have changed considerably in recent years, but there are few comparative data on the implementation of different models of service delivery.

METHODS

Using routine clinic records we examined ART initiation in pregnant women attending a large antenatal care (ANC) facility between January 2010 and December 2013 in Cape Town, South Africa. Over this time six different service delivery models were implemented sequentially to provide ART in pregnancy, including the integration of ART into ANC, use of point-of-care CD4 cell count testing, and universal ART initiation for all HIV-infected pregnant women.

RESULTS

During the study period 19,432 women sought ANC, levels of HIV testing were high (98%) and 30% of pregnant women tested HIV-positive. Integration of ART into ANC was associated with significant increases in the proportion of eligible women initiating treatment before delivery compared to referral to a separate ART clinic (p<0.001). When CD4 cell counts were used to determine ART eligibility, point-of-care testing was associated with decreased delays to ART initiation compared to laboratory-based testing (p<0.001). The strategy of universal ART led to the highest levels of ART initiation (with 92% of women starting before delivery) and the shortest delays, with 82% of women starting ART on the day of the first ANC visit.

CONCLUSION

Developments in service delivery models, most notably service integration and universal ART for pregnant women, have improved antenatal ART initiation dramatically in this setting. Further research is needed into how strategies for antenatal ART initiation impact maternal and child health over the long-term.

HIV-positive status disclosure and use of essential PMTCT and maternal health services in rural Kenya

Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text.

Background:

In sub-Saharan Africa, women's disclosure of HIV-positive status to others may affect their use of services for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) of HIV and maternal and child health—including antenatal care, antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) for PMTCT, and skilled birth attendance.

Methods:

Using data from the Migori and AIDS Stigma Study conducted in rural Nyanza Province, Kenya, we compared the use of PMTCT and maternal health services for all women by HIV status and disclosure category (n = 390). Among HIV-infected women (n = 145), associations between disclosure of HIV-positive status and the use of services were further examined with bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses.

Results:

Women living with HIV who had not disclosed to anyone had the lowest levels of maternity and PMTCT service utilization. For example, only 21% of these women gave birth in a health facility, compared with 35% of HIV-negative women and 49% of HIV-positive women who had disclosed (P < 0.001). Among HIV-positive women, the effect of disclosure to anyone on ARV drug use [odds ratio (OR) = 5.8; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.9 to 17.8] and facility birth (OR = 2.9; 95% CI: 1.4 to 5.7) remained large and significant after adjusting for confounders. Disclosure to a male partner had a particularly strong effect on the use of ARVs for PMTCT (OR = 7.9; 95% CI: 3.7 to 17.1).

Conclusions:

HIV-positive status disclosure seems to be a complex yet critical factor for the use of PMTCT and maternal health services in this setting. The design of interventions to promote such disclosure must recognize the impact of HIV-related stigma on disclosure decisions and protect women's rights, autonomy, and safety.

A systematic review of individual and contextual factors affecting ART initiation, adherence, and retention for HIV-infected pregnant and postpartum women

BACKGROUND

Despite progress reducing maternal mortality, HIV-related maternal deaths remain high, accounting, for example, for up to 24 percent of all pregnancy-related deaths in sub-Saharan Africa. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is effective in improving outcomes among HIV-infected pregnant and postpartum women, yet rates of initiation, adherence, and retention remain low. This systematic literature review synthesized evidence about individual and contextual factors affecting ART use among HIV-infected pregnant and postpartum women.

METHODS

Searches were conducted for studies addressing the population (HIV-infected pregnant and postpartum women), intervention (ART), and outcomes of interest (initiation, adherence, and retention). Quantitative and qualitative studies published in English since January 2008 were included. Individual and contextual enablers and barriers to ART use were extracted and organized thematically within a framework of individual, interpersonal, community, and structural categories.

RESULTS

Thirty-four studies were included in the review. Individual-level factors included both those within and outside a woman's awareness and control (e.g., commitment to child's health or age). Individual-level barriers included poor understanding of HIV, ART, and prevention of mother-to-child transmission, and difficulty managing practical demands of ART. At an interpersonal level, disclosure to a spouse and spousal involvement in treatment were associated with improved initiation, adherence, and retention. Fear of negative consequences was a barrier to disclosure. At a community level, stigma was a major barrier. Key structural barriers and enablers were related to health system use and engagement, including access to services and health worker attitudes.

CONCLUSIONS

To be successful, programs seeking to expand access to and continued use of ART by integrating maternal health and HIV services must identify and address the relevant barriers and enablers in their own context that are described in this review. Further research on this population, including those who drop out of or never access health services, is needed to inform effective implementation.

A systematic review of health system barriers and enablers for antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV-infected pregnant and postpartum women

Background

Despite global progress in the fight to reduce maternal mortality, HIV-related maternal deaths remain persistently high, particularly in much of Africa. Lifelong antiretroviral therapy (ART) appears to be the most effective way to prevent these deaths, but the rates of three key outcomes—ART initiation, retention in care, and long-term ART adherence—remain low. This systematic review synthesized evidence on health systems factors affecting these outcomes in pregnant and postpartum women living with HIV.

Methods

Searches were conducted for studies addressing the population of interest (HIV-infected pregnant and postpartum women), the intervention of interest (ART), and the outcomes of interest (initiation, adherence, and retention). Quantitative and qualitative studies published in English since January 2008 were included. A four-stage narrative synthesis design was used to analyze findings. Review findings from 42 included studies were categorized according to five themes: 1) models of care, 2) service delivery, 3) resource constraints and governance challenges, 4) patient-health system engagement, and 5) maternal ART interventions.

Results

Low prioritization of maternal ART and persistent dropout along the maternal ART cascade were key findings. Service delivery barriers included poor communication and coordination among health system actors, poor clinical practices, and gaps in provider training. The few studies that assessed maternal ART interventions demonstrated the importance of multi-pronged, multi-leveled interventions.

Conclusions

There has been a lack of emphasis on the experiences, needs and vulnerabilities particular to HIV-infected pregnant and postpartum women. Supporting these women to successfully traverse the maternal ART cascade requires carefully designed and targeted interventions throughout the steps. Careful design of integrated service delivery models is of critical importance in this effort. Key knowledge gaps and research priorities were also identified, including definitions and indicators of adherence rates, and the importance of cumulative measures of dropout along the maternal ART cascade.

Disengagement of HIV-positive pregnant and postpartum women from antiretroviral therapy services: a cohort study

Introduction

Recent international guidelines call for expanded access to triple-drug antiretroviral therapy (ART) in HIV-positive women during pregnancy and postpartum. However, high levels of non-adherence and/or disengagement from care may attenuate the benefits of ART for HIV transmission and maternal health. We examined the frequency and predictors of disengagement from care among women initiating ART during pregnancy in Cape Town, South Africa.

Methods

We used routine medical records to follow-up pregnant women initiating ART within prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV services in Cape Town, South Africa. Outcomes assessed through six months postpartum were (1) disengagement (no attendance within 56 days of a scheduled visit) and (2) missed visits (returning to care 14–56 days late for a scheduled visit).

Results

A total of 358 women (median age, 28 years; median gestational age, 26 weeks) initiated ART during pregnancy. By six months postpartum, 24% of women (n=86) had missed at least one visit and an additional 32% (n=115) had disengaged from care; together, 49% of women had either missed a visit or had disengaged by six months postpartum. Disengagement was more than twice as frequent postpartum compared to in the antenatal period (6.2 vs. 2.4 per 100 woman-months, respectively; p<0.0001). In a proportional hazards model, later gestational age at initiation (HR: 1.04; 95% CI: 1.00–1.07; p=0.030) and being newly diagnosed with HIV (HR: 1.57; 95% CI: 1.07–2.33; p=0.022) were significant predictors of disengagement after adjusting for patient age, starting CD4 cell count and site of ART initiation.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate that missed visits and disengagement from care occur frequently, particularly post-delivery, among HIV-positive women initiating ART during pregnancy. Women who are newly diagnosed with HIV may be particularly vulnerable and there is an urgent need for interventions both to promote retention overall, as well as targeting women newly diagnosed with HIV during pregnancy.

Economic and social factors are some of the most common barriers preventing women from accessing maternal and newborn child health (MNCH) and prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) services: a literature review

Support to health programming has increasingly placed an emphasis on health systems strengthening. Integration of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and maternal and newborn child health (MNCH) services has been one of the areas where there has been a shift from a siloed to a more integrated approach. The scale-up of anti-retroviral therapy has made services increasingly available while also bringing them closer to those in need. However, addressing supply side issues around the availability and quality of care at the health centre level alone cannot guarantee better results without a more explicit focus on access issues. Access to PMTCT care and treatment services is affected by a number of barriers which influence decisions of women to seek care. This paper reviews published qualitative and quantitative studies that look at demand side barriers to PMTCT services and proposes a categorisation of these barriers. It notes that access to PMTCT services as well as eventual uptake and retention in PMTCT care starts with access to MNCH in general. While poverty often prevents women, regardless of HIV status, from accessing MNCH services, women living with HIV who are in need of PMTCT services face an additional set of PMTCT barriers. This review proposes four categories of barriers to accessing PMTCT: social norms and knowledge, socioeconomic status, physiological status and psychological conditions. Social norms and knowledge and socioeconomic status stand out. Transport is the most frequently mentioned socioeconomic barrier. With regard to social norms and knowledge, non-disclosure, stigma and partner relations are the most commonly cited barriers. Some studies also cite physiological barriers. Barriers related to social norms and knowledge, socioeconomic status and physiology can all be affected by the mental and psychological state of the individual to create a psychological barrier to access. Increased coverage and uptake of PMTCT services can be achieved if policy makers and programme managers better understand the barriers that may prevent their potential target population from taking up and adhering to their services. The categorisation presented in this review provides further insight into the type of barriers that may exist .

Linking women who test HIV-positive in pregnancy-related services to HIV care and treatment services in Kenya: a mixed methods prospective cohort study

Introduction

There has been insufficient attention to long-term care and treatment for pregnant women diagnosed with HIV.

Objective and Methods

This prospective cohort study of 100 HIV-positive women recruited within pregnancy-related services in a district hospital in Kenya employed quantitative methods to assess attrition between women testing HIV-positive in pregnancy-related services and accessing long-term HIV care and treatment services. Qualitative methods were used to explore barriers and facilitators to navigating these services.

Structured questionnaires were administered to cohort participants at enrolment and 90+ days later. Participants’ medical records were monitored prospectively. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were carried out with a sub-set of 19 participants.

Findings

Only 53/100 (53%) women registered at an HIV clinic within 90 days of HIV diagnosis, of whom 27/53 (51%) had a CD4 count result in their file. 11/27 (41%) women were eligible for immediate antiretroviral therapy (ART); only 6/11 (55%) started ART during study follow-up. In multivariable logistic regression analysis, factors associated with registration at the HIV clinic within 90 days of HIV diagnosis were: having cared for someone with HIV (aOR:3.67(95%CI:1.22, 11.09)), not having to pay for transport to the hospital (aOR:2.73(95%CI:1.09, 6.84)), and having received enough information to decide to have an HIV test (aOR:3.61(95%CI:0.83, 15.71)). Qualitative data revealed multiple factors underlying high patient drop-out related to women’s social support networks (e.g. partner’s attitude to HIV status), interactions with health workers (e.g. being given unclear/incorrect HIV-related information) and health services characteristics (e.g. restricted opening hours, long waiting times).

Conclusion

HIV testing within pregnancy-related services is an important entry point to HIV care and treatment services, but few women successfully completed the steps needed for assessment of their treatment needs within three months of diagnosis. Programmatic recommendations include simplified pathways to care, better-tailored counselling, integration of ART into antenatal services, and facilitation of social support.

The pregnancy decisions of HIV-positive women: the state of knowledge and way forward

Despite the growing number of women living with and affected by HIV, there is still insufficient attention to their pregnancy-related needs, rights, decisions and desires in research, policy and programs. We carried out a review of the literature to ascertain the current state of knowledge and highlight areas requiring further attention. We found that contraceptive options for pregnancy prevention by HIV-positive women are insufficient: condoms are not always available or acceptable, and other options are limited by affordability, availability or efficacy. Further, coerced sterilization of women living with HIV is widely reported. Information gaps persist in relation to effectiveness, safety and best practices regarding assisted reproductive technologies. Attention to neonatal outcomes generally outweighs attention to the health of women before, during and after pregnancy. Access to safe abortion and post-abortion care services, which are critical to women's ability to fulfill their sexual and reproductive rights, are often curtailed. There is inadequate attention to HIV-positive sex workers, injecting drug users and adolescents. The many challenges that women living with HIV encounter in their interactions with sexual and reproductive health services shape their pregnancy decisions. It is critical that HIV-positive women be more involved in the design and implementation of research, policies and programs related to their pregnancy-related needs and rights.

Barriers and facilitating factors to the uptake of antiretroviral drugs for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review

Objectives

To investigate and synthesize reasons for low access, initiation and adherence to antiretroviral drugs by mothers and exposed babies for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa.

Methods

A systematic literature review was conducted. Four databases were searched (Medline, Embase, Global Health and Web of Science) for studies conducted in sub-Saharan Africa from January 2000 to September 2012. Quantitative and qualitative studies were included that met pre-defined criteria. Antiretroviral (ARV) prophylaxis (maternal/infant) and combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) usage/registration at HIV care and treatment during pregnancy were included as outcomes.

Results

Of 574 references identified, 40 met the inclusion criteria. Four references were added after searching reference lists of included articles. Twenty studies were quantitative, 16 were qualitative and eight were mixed methods. Forty-one studies were conducted in Southern and East Africa, two in West Africa, none in Central Africa and one was multi-regional. The majority (n=25) were conducted before combination ART for PMTCT was emphasized in 2006. At the individual-level, poor knowledge of HIV/ART/vertical transmission, lower maternal educational level and psychological issues following HIV diagnosis were the key barriers identified. Stigma and fear of status disclosure to partners, family or community members (community-level factors) were the most frequently cited barriers overall and across time. The extent of partner/community support was another major factor impeding or facilitating the uptake of PMTCT ARVs, while cultural traditions including preferences for traditional healers and birth attendants were also common. Key health-systems issues included poor staff-client interactions, staff shortages, service accessibility and non-facility deliveries.

Conclusions

Long-standing health-systems issues (such as staffing and service accessibility) and community-level factors (particularly stigma, fear of disclosure and lack of partner support) have not changed over time and continue to plague PMTCT programmes more than 10 years after their introduction. The potential of PMTCT programmes to virtually eliminate vertical transmission of HIV will remain elusive unless these barriers are tackled. The prominence of community-level factors in this review points to the importance of community-driven approaches to improve uptake of PMTCT interventions, although packages of solutions addressing barriers at different levels will be important.

Integrating antiretroviral therapy into antenatal care and maternal and child health settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether integrating antiretroviral therapy (ART) into antenatal care (ANC) and maternal and child health (MCH) clinics could improve programmatic and patient outcomes.

METHODS

The authors systematically searched PubMed, Embase, African Index Medicus and LiLACS for randomized controlled trials, prospective cohort studies, or retrospective cohort studies comparing outcomes in ANC or MCH clinics that had and had not integrated ART. The outcomes of interest were ART coverage, ART enrolment, ART retention, mortality and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

FINDINGS

Four studies met the inclusion criteria. All were conducted in ANC clinics. Increased enrolment of pregnant women in ART was observed in ANC clinics that had integrated ART (relative risk, RR: 2.09; 95% confidence interval, CI; 1.78-2.46; I(2): 15%). Increased ART coverage was also noted in such clinics (RR: 1.37; 95% CI: 1.05-1.79; I(2): 83%). Sensitivity analyses revealed a trend for the national prevalence of HIV infection to explain the heterogeneity in the size of the effect of ART integration on ART coverage (P = 0.13). Retention in ART was similar in ANC clinics with and without ART integration.

CONCLUSION

Although few data were available, ART integration in ANC clinics appears to lead to higher rates of ART enrolment and ART coverage. Rates of retention in ART remain similar to those observed in referral-based models.

Patient attrition between diagnosis with HIV in pregnancy-related services and long-term HIV care and treatment services in Kenya: a retrospective study

BACKGROUND

There has been little attention, until recently, to linking women who test HIV positive in pregnancy-related services to long-term HIV care and treatment services.

METHODS

A retrospective review of routine hospital data was carried out in 2 hospitals in Kenya. Associations between available demographic information and uptake of HIV-related services within 6 months of HIV diagnosis in pregnancy-related services were assessed using logistic regression. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was used to assess time between HIV diagnosis and registration at the HIV clinic. Referrals between pregnancy-related and HIV-related services were observed.

RESULTS

At Naivasha hospital, the proportion of women registering at the HIV clinic within 6 months was 17.2% (153 of 892); at Gilgil hospital, it was 35.4% (84 of 237). Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) was initiated by 40% and 27% of known eligible women in Naivasha and Gilgil, respectively. Non-systematic registration of clients on first contact at the HIV clinic, and restricted availability of services due to costs and opening hours were observed. In Naivasha, year, attendance at multiple pregnancy-related visits, and attendance at antenatal care in Naivasha hospital were associated with registration at the HIV clinic. In Gilgil, year, attendance at multiple pregnancy-related visits, and women being in their first pregnancy were associated with the outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Only 4% of women estimated to need HAART for their own care initiated HAART within 6 months of HIV diagnosis. Challenges associated with providing longitudinal care are especially evident in the context of high population mobility. Innovation in service delivery is required to improve uptake of services.

Individual and contextual factors influencing patient attrition from antiretroviral therapy care in an urban community of Lusaka, Zambia

BACKGROUND

Despite the relatively effective roll-out of free life-prolonging antiretroviral therapy (ART) in public sector clinics in Zambia since 2005, and the proven efficacy of ART, some people living with HIV (PLHIV) are abandoning the treatment. Drawing on a wider ethnographic study in a predominantly low-income, high-density residential area of Lusaka, this paper reports the reasons why PLHIV opted to discontinue their HIV treatment.

METHODS

Opened-ended, in-depth interviews were held with PLHIV who had stopped ART (n =25), ART clinic staff (n=5), religious leaders (n=5), herbal medicine providers (n=5) and lay home-based caregivers (n=5). In addition, participant observations were conducted in the study setting for 18 months. Interview data were analysed using open coding first, and then interpreted using latent content analysis. The presentation of the results is guided by a social-ecological framework.

FINDINGS

Patient attrition from ART care is influenced by an interplay of personal, social, health system and structural-level factors. While improved corporeal health, side effects and need for normalcy diminished motivation to continue with treatment, individuals also weighed the social and economic costs of continued uptake of treatment. Long waiting times for medical care and placing "defaulters" on intensive adherence counselling in the context of insecure labour conditions and livelihood constraints not only imposed opportunity costs which patients were not willing to forego, but also forced individuals to balance physical health with social integrity, which sometimes forced them to opt for faith healing and traditional medicine.

CONCLUSIONS

Complex and dynamic interplay of personal, social, health system and structural-level factors coalesces to influence patient attrition from ART care. Consequently, while patient-centred interventions are required, efforts should be made to improve ART care by extending and establishing flexible ART clinic hours, improving patient-provider dialogue about treatment experiences and being mindful of the way intensive adherence counselling is being enforced. In the context of insecure labour conditions and fragile livelihoods, this would enable individuals to more easily balance time for treatment and their livelihoods. As a corollary, the perceived efficacy of alternative treatment and faith healing needs to be challenged through sensitizations targeting patients, religious leaders/faith healers and herbal medicine providers.

[Postpartum women with unknown HIV status in Lubumbashi, DR Congo: proportion and determinants]

Introduction

Méthodes

Résultats

Conclusion

Linking women who test HIV-positive in pregnancy-related services to long-term HIV care and treatment services: a systematic review

OBJECTIVES

To quantify attrition between women testing HIV-positive in pregnancy-related services and accessing long-term HIV care and treatment services in low- or middle-income countries and to explore the reasons underlying client drop-out by synthesising current literature on this topic.

METHODS

A systematic search in Medline, EMBASE, Global Health and the International Bibliography of the Social Sciences of literature published 2000-2010. Only studies meeting pre-defined quality criteria were included.

RESULTS

Of 2543 articles retrieved, 20 met the inclusion criteria. Sixteen (80%) drew on data from sub-Saharan Africa. The pathway between testing HIV-positive in pregnancy-related services and accessing long-term HIV-related services is complex, and attrition was usually high. There was a failure to initiate highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) among 38-88% of known-eligible women. Providing 'family-focused care', and integrating CD4 testing and HAART provision into prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission services appear promising for increasing women's uptake of HIV-related services. Individual-level factors that need to be addressed include financial constraints and fear of stigma.

CONCLUSIONS

Too few women negotiate the many steps between testing HIV-positive in pregnancy-related services and accessing HIV-related services for themselves. Recent efforts to stem patient drop-out, such as the MTCT-Plus Initiative, hold promise. Addressing barriers and enabling factors both within health facilities and at the levels of the individual woman, her family and society will be essential to improve the uptake of services.

Building adherence-competent communities: factors promoting children's adherence to anti-retroviral HIV/AIDS treatment in rural Zimbabwe

Given relatively high levels of adherence to HIV treatment in Africa, we explore factors facilitating children's adherence, despite poverty, social disruption and limited health infrastructure. Using interviews with 25 nurses and 40 guardians in Zimbabwe, we develop our conceptualisation of an ‘adherence competent community’, showing how members of five networks (children, guardians, community members, health workers and NGOs) have taken advantage of the gradual public normalisation of HIV/AIDS and improved drug and service availability to construct new norms of solidarity with HIV and AIDS sufferers, recognition of HIV-infected children's social worth, an ethic of care/assistance and a supporting atmosphere of enablement/empowerment.