Anti-Epcam Aptamer (Syl3c)-Functionalized Liposome for Targeted Delivery Of Doxorubicin: In Vitro And In Vivo Antitumor Studies in Mice Bearing C26 Colon Carcinoma

The impact of phospholipids with high transition temperature to enhance redox-sensitive liposomal doxorubicin efficacy in colon carcinoma model

In this study, we have developed a redox-sensitive (RS) liposomal doxorubicin formulation by incorporating 10,10'-diselanediylbis decanoic acid (DDA) organoselenium compound as the RS moiety. Hence, several RS liposomal formulations were prepared by using DOPE, HSPC, DDA, mPEG2000-DSPE, and cholesterol. In situ drug loading using a pH gradient and citrate complex yielded high drug to lipid ratio and encapsulation efficiency (100%) for RS liposomes. Liposomal formulations were characterized in terms of size, surface charge and morphology, drug loading, release properties, cell uptake and cytotoxicity, as well as therapeutic efficacy in BALB/c mice bearing C26 tumor cells. The formulations showed an average particle size of 200 nm with narrow size distributions (PDI < 0.3), and negative surface charges varying from -6 mV to -18.6 mV. Our study confirms that the presence of the DDA compound in liposomes is highly sensitive to hydrogen peroxide at 0.1% w/v, resulting in a significant burst release of up to 40%. The in vivo therapeutic efficacy study in BALB/c mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma confirmed the promising function of RS liposomes in the tumor microenvironment which led to a prolonged median survival time (MST). The addition of hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC) with a high transition temperature (Tm: 52-53.5°C) extended the MST of our 3-component formulation of F14 (DOPE/HSPC/DDA) to 60 days in comparison to Caelyx (PEGylated liposomal Dox), which is not RS-sensitive (39 days). Overall, HSPC liposomes bearing RS-sensitive moiety enhanced therapeutic efficacy against colon cancer in vitro and in vivo. This achievement unequivocally underscores the criticality of high-TM phospholipids, particularly HSPC, in significantly enhancing liposome stability within the bloodstream. In addition, RS liposomes enable the on-demand release of drugs, leveraging the redox environment of tumor cells, thereby augmenting the efficacy of the formulation.

Functionalized liposomes as a potential drug delivery systems for colon cancer treatment: A systematic review

Colon cancer is one of the lethal diseases in the world with approximately 700,000 fatalities annually. Nowadays, due to the side effects of existing methods in the treatment of colon cancer such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy, the use of targeted nanocarriers in cancer treatment has received wide attention, and among them, especially liposomes have been studied a lot. Based on this, anti-tumor drugs hidden in targeted active liposomes can selectively act on cancer cells. In this systematic review, the use of various ligands such as folic acid, transferrin, aptamer, hyaluronic acid and cRGD for active targeting of liposomes to achieve improved drug delivery to colon cancer cells has been reviewed. The original articles published in English in the databases of Science Direct, PubMed and Google scholar from 2012 to 2022 were reviewed. From the total of 26,256 published articles, 19 studies met the inclusion criteria. The results of in vitro and in vivo studies have revealed that targeted liposomes lead to increasing the efficacy of anti-cancer agents on colon cancer cells with reducing side effects compared to free drugs and non-targeted liposomes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review showing promising results for improvement treatment of colon cancer using targeted liposomes.

Targeted Liposomal Drug Delivery: Overview of the Current Applications and Challenges

In drug development, it is not uncommon that an active substance exhibits efficacy in vitro but lacks the ability to specifically reach its target in vivo. As a result, targeted drug delivery has become a primary focus in the pharmaceutical sciences. Since the approval of Doxil® in 1995, liposomes have emerged as a leading nanoparticle in targeted drug delivery. Their low immunogenicity, high versatility, and well-documented efficacy have led to their clinical use against a wide variety of diseases. That being said, every disease is accompanied by a unique set of physiological conditions, and each liposomal product must be formulated with this consideration. There are a multitude of different targeting techniques for liposomes that can be employed depending on the application. Passive techniques such as PEGylation or the enhanced permeation and retention effect can improve general pharmacokinetics, while active techniques such as conjugating targeting molecules to the liposome surface may bring even further specificity. This review aims to summarize the current strategies for targeted liposomes in the treatment of diseases.

Engineering aspects of lipid-based delivery systems: In vivo gene delivery, safety criteria, and translation strategies

Defects in the genome cause genetic diseases and can be treated with gene therapy. Due to the limitations encountered in gene delivery, lipid-based supramolecular colloidal materials have emerged as promising gene carrier systems. In their non-functionalized form, lipid nanoparticles often demonstrate lower transgene expression efficiency, leading to suboptimal therapeutic outcomes, specifically through reduced percentages of cells expressing the transgene. Due to chemically active substituents, the engineering of delivery systems for genetic drugs with specific chemical ligands steps forward as an innovative strategy to tackle the drawbacks and enhance their therapeutic efficacy. Despite intense investigations into functionalization strategies, the clinical outcome of such therapies still needs to be improved. Here, we highlight and comprehensively review engineering aspects for functionalizing lipid-based delivery systems and their therapeutic efficacy for developing novel genetic cargoes to provide a full snapshot of the translation from the bench to the clinics. We outline existing challenges in the delivery and internalization processes and narrate recent advances in the functionalization of lipid-based delivery systems for nucleic acids to enhance their therapeutic efficacy and safety. Moreover, we address clinical trials using these vectors to expand their clinical use and principal safety concerns.

Aptamers for the Delivery of Plant-Based Compounds: A Review

Natural compounds have a high potential for the treatment of various conditions, including infections, inflammatory diseases, and cancer. However, they usually present poor pharmacokinetics, low specificity, and even toxicity, which limits their use. Therefore, targeted drug delivery systems, typically composed of a carrier and a targeting ligand, can enhance natural product selectivity and effectiveness. Notably, aptamers-short RNA or single-stranded DNA molecules-have gained attention as promising ligands in targeted drug delivery since they are simple to synthesize and modify, and they present high tissue permeability, stability, and a wide array of available targets. The combination of natural products, namely plant-based compounds, with a drug delivery system utilizing aptamers as targeting agents represents an emerging strategy that has the potential to broaden its applications. This review discusses the potential of aptamers as targeting agents in the delivery of natural compounds, as well as new trends and developments in their utilization in the field of medicine.

Hybridized quantum dot, silica, and gold nanoparticles for targeted chemo-radiotherapy in colorectal cancer theranostics

Multimodal nanoparticles, utilizing quantum dots (QDs), mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), and gold nanoparticles (Au NPs), offer substantial potential as a smart and targeted drug delivery system for simultaneous cancer therapy and imaging. This method entails coating magnetic GZCIS/ZnS QDs with mesoporous silica, loading epirubicin into the pores, capping with Au NPs, PEGylation, and conjugating with epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) aptamers to actively target colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. This study showcases the hybrid QD@MSN-EPI-Au-PEG-Apt nanocarriers (size ~65 nm) with comprehensive characterizations post-synthesis. In vitro studies demonstrate the selective cytotoxicity of these targeted nanocarriers towards HT-29 cells compared to CHO cells, leading to a significant reduction in HT-29 cell survival when combined with irradiation. Targeted delivery of nanocarriers in vivo is validated by enhanced anti-tumor effects with reduced side effects following chemo-radiotherapy, along with imaging in a CRC mouse model. This approach holds promise for improved CRC theranostics.

Engineered liposomes mediated approach for targeted colorectal cancer drug Delivery: A review

Colorectal cancer (CRC) continues to be one of the most prevalent and deadliest forms of cancer worldwide, despite notable advancements in its management. The prognosis for metastatic CRC remains discouraging, with a relative 5-year survival rate for stage IV CRC patients. Conventional treatments for advanced malignancies such as chemotherapy, often face limitations in effectively targeting cancer cells resulting in off-target distribution and significant side effects. In the quest for better strategies, researchers have explored numerous alternatives. Among these, nanoparticles (NPs) specifically liposomes have emerged as one of the most promising candidates in developing targeted delivery systems for cancer therapeutics. This review discusses the current approaches employing functionalised liposomes to overcome major biological barriers in therapeutics delivery for CRC treatment. We have also shared our perspectives on the technological development of liposomes for future clinical use and highlighted a few useful insights on the material choices for future research work in CRC.

Targeted drug delivery systems for elemene in cancer therapy: The story thus far

Elemene (ELE) is a group of broad-spectrum anticancer active ingredients with low toxicity extracted from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), such as Curcumae Rhizoma and Curcuma Radix, which can exert antitumour activities by regulating various signal pathways and targets. However, the strong hydrophobicity, short half-life, low bioavailability and weak in vivo targeting ability of ELE restrict its use. Targeted drug delivery systems based on nanomaterials are among the most viable methods to overcome these shortcomings. In this review, we first summarize recent studies on the clinical uses of ELE as an adjunct antitumour drug. ELE-based combination strategies have great promise for enhancing efficacy, reducing adverse reactions, and improving patients' quality of life and immune function. Second, we summarize recent studies on the antitumour mechanisms of ELE and ELE-based combination strategies. The potential mechanisms include inducing pyroptosis and ferroptosis, promoting senescence, regulating METTL3-mediated m6A modification, suppressing the Warburg effect, and inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Most importantly, we comprehensively summarize studies on the combination of targeted drug delivery systems with ELE, including passively and actively targeted drug delivery systems, stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems, and codelivery systems for ELE combined with other therapies, which have great promise in improving drug bioavailability, increasing drug targeting ability, controlling drug release, enhancing drug efficacy, reducing drug adverse effects and reversing MDR. Our summary will provide a reference for the combination of TCMs such as ELE with advanced targeted drug delivery systems in the future.

AR13 peptide-conjugated liposomes improve the antitumor efficacy of doxorubicin in mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma; in silico, in vitro, and in vivo study

Currently, liposomes have emerged as efficient and safer nano-carriers for targeted therapy in different cancers. This work aimed to employ PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (Doxil®/PLD), modified with AR13 peptide, to target Muc1 on the surface of colon cancerous cells. We performed molecular docking and simulation studies (using Gromacs package) of AR13 peptide against Muc1 to analyze and visualize the peptide-Muc1 binding combination. For in vitro analysis, the AR13 peptide was post-inserted into Doxil® and verified by TLC, ¹H NMR, and HPLC techniques. The zeta potential, TEM, release, cell uptake, competition assay, and cytotoxicity studies were performed. In vivo antitumor activities and survival analysis on mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma were studied. Results showed that after 100 ns simulation, a stable complex between AR13 and Muc1 formed, and molecular dynamics analysis confirmed this interaction. In vitro analysis demonstrated significant enhancement of cellular binding and cell uptake. The results of in vivo study on BALB/c mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma, revealed an extended survival time to 44 days and higher tumor growth inhibition compared to Doxil®. Thus, the AR13 peptide could be explored as a potent ligand for Muc1, improving therapeutic antitumor efficiency in colon cancer cells.

Recent Preclinical and Clinical Progress in Liposomal Doxorubicin

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a potent anti-cancer agent that has garnered great interest in research due to its high efficacy despite dose-limiting toxicities. Several strategies have been exploited to enhance the efficacy and safety profile of DOX. Liposomes are the most established approach. Despite the improvement in safety properties of liposomal encapsulated DOX (in Doxil and Myocet), the efficacy is not superior to conventional DOX. Functionalized (targeted) liposomes present a more effective system to deliver DOX to the tumor. Moreover, encapsulation of DOX in pH-sensitive liposomes (PSLs) or thermo-sensitive liposomes (TSLs) combined with local heating has improved DOX accumulation in the tumor. Lyso-thermosensitive liposomal DOX (LTLD), MM-302, and C225-immunoliposomal(IL)-DOX have reached clinical trials. Further functionalized PEGylated liposomal DOX (PLD), TSLs, and PSLs have been developed and evaluated in preclinical models. Most of these formulations improved the anti-tumor activity compared to the currently available liposomal DOX. However, the fast clearance, the optimization of ligand density, stability, and release rate need more investigations. Therefore, we reviewed the latest approaches applied to deliver DOX more efficiently to the tumor, preserving the benefits obtained from FDA-approved liposomes.

EpCAM aptamer activated 5-FU-loaded PLGA nanoparticles in CRC treatment; in vitro and in vivo study

In this study, epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) aptamer-activated nanoparticles (Ap-NPs) were synthesised to enhance treatment efficiency in colorectal cancer (CRC). PLGA [poly(d, l-lactide-co-glycolide)] copolymer was fabricated by conjugation of COOH-PEG-NH₂ to PLGA-COOH through an EDC/NHS-mediated chemistry. Afterwards, 5-fluorouracil-loaded (FU) nanoparticles were prepared using the water/oil/water double emulsion solvent evaporation method. The in vitro cytotoxicity of formulations was evaluated using the MTT assay in HCT-116, CT-26 and HEK-293 cell lines. For in vivo study, tumour-bearing BALB/c mice were established by subcutaneous injection of CT-26 cell line. The results indicated that fabricated AP-FU-NPs had 101 nm size with a spherical surface, relatively homogeneously and, satisfactory encapsulation efficiency (83.93%). In vitro experiments revealed that Ap-FU-NPs had a superior in vitro cytotoxicity than both FU-NPs and free 5-FU in CT-26 and HCT-116 cells but, were significantly low toxic against HEK-293 cells relative to free 5-FU. Furthermore, in vivo results showed no significant haemolytic effect, hepatic and renal injury, or weight loss. After treatment of various animal groups with formulations, notable tumour growth delay was observed following the order: Ap-FU-NPs < FU-NPs < 5-FU < PBS. The results suggest that AP-FU-NPs could be an effective and promising carrier for 5-FU delivery to the EpCAM overexpressing CRC cells.

Phosphorothioated amino-AS1411 aptamer functionalized stealth nanoliposome accelerates bio-therapeutic threshold of apigenin in neoplastic rat liver: a mechanistic approach

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a leading cause of death globally. Even though the progressive invention of some very potent therapeutics has been seen, the success is limited due to the chemotherapeutic resistance and recurrence in HCC. Advanced targeted treatment options like immunotherapy, molecular therapy or surface-engineered nanotherapeutics could offer the benefits here owing to drug resistance over tumor heterogenicity. We have developed tumor-sensing phosphorothioate and amino-modified aptamer (AS1411)-conjugated stealth nanoliposomes, encapsulating with apigenin for precise and significant biodistribution of apigenin into the target tumor to exploit maximum bio-therapeutic assistances. The stable aptamer functionalized PEGylated nanoliposomes (Apt-NLCs) had an average vesicle size of 100-150 nm, a smooth surface, and an intact lamellarity, as ensured by DLS, FESEM, AFM, and Cryo-TEM. This study has specified in vitro process of optimum drug (apigenin) extrusion into the cancer cells by nucleolin receptor-mediated cellular internalization when delivered through modified AS1411 functionalized PEGylated nanoliposomes and ensured irreversible DNA damage in HCC. Significant improvement in cancer cell apoptosis in animal models, due to reduced clearance and higher intratumor drug accumulation along with almost nominal toxic effect in liver, strongly supports the therapeutic potential of aptamer-conjugated PEGylated nanoliposomes compared to the nonconjugated formulations in HCC. The study has established a robust superiority of modified AS1411 functionalized PEGylated nanoliposomes as an alternative drug delivery approach with momentous reduction of HCC tumor incidences.

Application of aptamer functionalized nanomaterials in targeting therapeutics of typical tumors

Cancer is a major cause of human death all over the world. Traditional cancer treatments include surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and hormone therapy. Although these conventional treatment methods improve the overall survival rate, there are some problems, such as easy recurrence, poor treatment, and great side effects. Targeted therapy of tumors is a hot research topic at present. Nanomaterials are essential carriers of targeted drug delivery, and nucleic acid aptamers have become one of the most important targets for targeted tumor therapy because of their high stability, high affinity, and high selectivity. At present, aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials (AFNs), which combine the unique selective recognition characteristics of aptamers with the high-loading performance of nanomaterials, have been widely studied in the field of targeted tumor therapy. Based on the reported application of AFNs in the biomedical field, we introduce the characteristics of aptamer and nanomaterials, and the advantages of AFNs first. Then introduce the conventional treatment methods for glioma, oral cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, liver cancer, colon cancer, pancreatic cancer, ovarian cancer, and prostate cancer, and the application of AFNs in targeted therapy of these tumors. Finally, we discuss the progress and challenges of AFNs in this field.

Study of FA12 peptide-modified PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) as an effective ligand to target Muc1 in mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma: in silico, in vitro, and in vivo study

OBJECTIVES

This study tried to achieve active targeting of Muc1 in cancer; the surface of PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD/Doxil®) was decorated with FA12 peptide.

METHODS

According to docking results, FA12 was selected for this study, among four different peptides. MD simulation was also conducted as an additional confirmation of the binding interaction between FA12 and Muc1. Liposomal formulations were prepared; ¹HNMR and HPLC techniques were used to verify peptide conjugation to DSPE-PEG2000-COOH. Afterward, DSPE-PEG2000-FA12 was post-inserted into the PLD at 50, 100, 200, and 400 peptides per liposome. The size, zeta potential, release profile, cytotoxicity (IC₅₀), and cell uptake (using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry) were evaluated. In vivo biodistribution and antitumor activities were studied on mice bearing C-26 colon carcinoma.

RESULTS

Cell uptake and cytotoxicity results revealed that PLD-100 (targeted PLD with 100 FA12 per liposome) could significantly enhance cellular binding. Furthermore, PLD-100 demonstrated higher antitumor efficacy, indicating more remarkable survival compared to PLD and other targeted PLDs. PLD-100 exhibited higher doxorubicin tumor accumulation compared to PLD.

CONCLUSIONS

FA12 peptide is a promising targeting ligand for PLD to treat cancers with a high level of Muc1 expression and merits further investigations.

Nanoparticle-mediated selective Sfrp-1 silencing enhances bone density in osteoporotic mice

Osteoporosis (OP) is characterized by a loss in bone mass and mineral density. The stimulation of the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway has been reported to promote bone formation, this pathway is controlled by several regulators as secreted frizzled-related protein-1 (Sfrp-1), antagonist of the pathway. Thus, Sfrp-1 silencing therapies could be suitable for enhancing bone growth. However, the systemic stimulation of Wnt/β-catenin has been correlated with side effects. This work hypothesizes the administration of lipid-polymer NPs (LPNPs) functionalized with a MSC specific aptamer (Apt) and carrying a SFRP1 silencing GapmeR, could favor bone formation in OP with minimal undesired effects. Suitable SFRP1 GapmeR-loaded Apt-LPNPs (Apt-LPNPs-SFRP1) were administered in osteoporotic mice and their biodistribution, toxicity and bone induction capacity were evaluated. The aptamer functionalization of the NPs modified their biodistribution profile showing a four-fold increase in the bone accumulation and a ten-fold decrease in the hepatic accumulation compared to naked LPNPs. Moreover, the histological evaluation revealed evident changes in bone structure observing a more compact trabecular bone and a cortical bone thickness increase in the Apt-LPNPs-SFRP1 treated mice with no toxic effects. Therefore, these LPNPs showed suitable properties and biodistribution profiles leading to an enhancement on the bone density of osteoporotic mice.

Stealth nanoparticles in oncology: Facing the PEG dilemma

Nanoparticles (Nps) have revolutionized the landscape of many treatments, by modifying not only pharmacokinetic properties of the encapsulated agent, but also providing a significant protection of the drug from non-desired interactions, and reducing side-effects of the enclosed therapeutic, enabling co-encapsulation of possibly synergistic compounds or activities, allowing a controlled release of content and improving the therapeutic effect. Nevertheless, in systemic circulation, Nps suffer a rapid removal by opsonisation and the action of Mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). To overcome this problem, different polymers, in particular Polyethyleneglycol (PEG), have been used to cover the surface of these nanocarriers forming a hydrophilic layer that allows the delay of the removal. These advantages contrast with some drawbacks such as the difficulty to interact with cell membranes and the development of immunological reactions, conforming the known, "PEG dilemma". To address and minimize this phenomenon, different strategies have been applied. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the state of the art of Pegylation strategies, comment in depth on the principal characteristics of PEG and describe the main alternatives, which are the use of cleavable PEG, addition of different polymers or even use other derivatives of cell membranes to camouflage Nps.

The role of size in PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin biodistribution and anti-tumour activity

The size of nanoliposome‐encapsulated drugs significantly affects their therapeutic efficacy, biodistribution, targeting ability, and toxicity profile for the cancer treatment. In the present study, the biodistribution and anti‐tumoral activity of PEGylated liposomal Doxorubicin (PLD) formulations with different sizes were investigated. First, 100, 200, and 400 nm PLDs were prepared by remote loading procedure and characterised for their size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficacy, and release properties. Then, in vitro cellular uptake and cytotoxicity were studied by flow cytometry and MTT assay, and compared with commercially available PLD Caelyx^®. In vivo studies were applied on BALB/c mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma. The cytotoxicity and cellular uptake tests did not demonstrate any statistically significant differences between PLDs. The biodistribution results showed that Caelyx^® and 100 nm liposomal formulations had the most doxorubicin (Dox) accumulation in the tumour tissue and, as a result, considerably suppressed tumour growth compared with 200 and 400 nm PLDs. In contrast, larger nanoparticles (200 and 400 nm formulations) had more accumulation in the liver and spleen. This study revealed that 90 nm Caelyx^® biodistribution profile led to the stronger anti‐tumour activity of the drug and hence significant survival extension, and showed the importance of vesicle size in the targeting of nanoparticles to the tumour microenvironment for the treatment of cancer.

A liquid-crystal aptasensing platform for label-free detection of a single circulating tumor cell

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs), which are shed from a primary site into the bloodstream and lead to distal metastases, are pivotal as a prognostic marker for evaluating the treatment response of cancer patients. One of the major challenges of detecting CTCs is their scarcity in blood. We report herein a label-free liquid crystal (LC) cytosensor by adopting an aptamer against epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) to capture EpCAM-positive cancer cells. The optical and dielectric signals transduced from the interaction between LC and different numbers of captured breast cancer cells were investigated. A limit of detection (LOD) of 5 CTCs was resulted from the optical biosensing approach relying on texture observation and image analysis of the optical signal in polarizing micrographs. The LOD was further lowered to a single CTC in the dielectric approach by studying the real- and imaginary-part dielectric constants of LC at 1 kHz and 30 Hz as well as the relaxation frequency. The LC-based EpCAM-specific dielectric cytosensor was successfully applied to single-cell CTC detection in cancer cell-spiked human serum and whole blood. This platform demonstrates the potential of LC-based biosensing technologies in cellular-level detection and quantitation, which is crucial to the early diagnosis of cancer metastasis and progression.

Approaches to Address PK-PD Challenges of Conventional Liposome Formulation with Special Reference to Cancer, Alzheimer's, Diabetes, and Glaucoma: An Update on Modified Liposomal Drug Delivery System

Liposomes nowadays have become a preferential drug delivery system since they provide facilitating properties to drugs, such as improved therapeutic index of encapsulated drug, target and controlled drug delivery, and less toxicity. However, conventional liposomes have shown some disadvantages, such as less drug loading capacity, poor retention, clearance by kidney or reticuloendothelial system, and less release of hydrophilic drugs. Thus, to overcome these disadvantages recently, scientists have explored new approaches and methods, viz., ligand conjugation, polymer coating, and liposome hybrids, including surface-modified liposomes, biopolymer-incorporated liposomes, guest-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposome, liposome-in-hydrogel, liposome-in-film, liposome-in-nanofiber, etc. These approaches have been shown to improve the physiochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of encapsulated drugs. Lately, pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) computational modeling has emerged as a beneficial tool for analyzing the impact of formulation and system-specific factors on the target disposition and therapeutic efficacy of liposomal drugs. There has been an increasing number of liposome-based therapeutic drugs, both FDA approved and those undergoing clinical trials, having application in cancer, Alzheimer's, diabetes, and glaucoma. To meet the continuous demand of health sectors and to produce the desired product, it is important to perform pharmacokinetic studies. This review focuses on the physical, physicochemical, and chemical factors of drugs that influence the target delivery of drugs. It also explains various physiological barriers, such as systemic clearance and extravasation. A novel approach, liposomal-hybrid complex, an innovative approach as a vesicular drug delivery system to overcome limited membrane permeability and bioavailability, has been discussed in the review. Moreover, this review highlights the pharmacokinetic considerations and challenges of poorly absorbed drugs along with the applications of a liposomal delivery system in improving PKPD in various diseases, such as cancer, Alzheimer's, diabetes, and glaucoma.

Docetaxel in combination with metformin enhances antitumour efficacy in metastatic breast carcinoma models: a promising cancer targeting based on PEGylated liposomes

OBJECTIVES

Metformin has been shown to kill cancer stem-like cells in genetically various types of breast carcinoma. With the aim to simultaneously eradicate the bulk population of tumour cells and the rare population of cancer stem-like cells in breast cancer tissues, we used the combination chemotherapy of docetaxel (DTX) with metformin (MET). Furthermore, we introduce an active loading method based on ammonium sulphate 250 mM (SA) for encapsulating docetaxel into liposomes.

METHODS

Docetaxel and metformin encapsulated into PEGylated liposomes with two different methods based on remote or passive loading methods, respectively. The size and surface charge of the liposomes were characterized. DTX content in the nanoliposomes was measured by the high-performance liquid chromatography method. The drug release profiles were evaluated in phosphate-buffered dextrose 5% with the pH of 6.5 and 7.4. We examined the antitumour activity of Taxotere (TAX), and liposomal formulation of DTX and MET as a monotherapy or combination therapy. The biodistribution of liposomes was also investigated using 99mTc hexamethyl propylene amine oxime method in BALB/c mice bearing 4T1 breast carcinoma tumours.

KEY FINDINGS

The final formulations were prepared according to the best physicochemical characteristics which were HSPC/mPEG2000-DSPE/Chol (DTX liposomes) and HSPC/DPPG/mPEG2000-DSPE/Chol (MET liposomes), at molar ratios of 85/5/10 and (55/5/5/35), respectively. In vivo experiments showed that when free or liposomal metformin used in combination with liposomal docetaxel, they prolonged median survival time (MST) from 31 in the control group to 46 days, which demonstrates their promising effects on the survival of the 4T1 breast carcinoma mice models. Moreover, combination therapies could significantly increase life span in comparison with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and Taxotere groups at the same dose. Furthermore, in the combination therapy study, treatment with DTX liposomes prepared by ammonium sulphate 250 mM buffer alone resulted in similar therapeutic efficacy to combination therapy. The biodistribution study exhibited significant accumulation of DTX liposomes in the tumours due to the Enhanced Permeability and Retention effect.

CONCLUSIONS

This study also showed that metformin-based combinatorial chemotherapies have superior efficacy versus their corresponding monotherapy counterparts at same doses. The findings confirm that liposomes based on ammonium sulphate 250 mM could be as a promising formulation for efficient DTX delivering and cancer targeting and therefore merit further investigations.

Redox-sensitive doxorubicin liposome: a formulation approach for targeted tumor therapy

In this study redox-sensitive (RS) liposomes manufactured using 10,10′-diselanediylbis decanoic acid (DDA), an organoselenium RS compound, to enhance the therapeutic performance of doxorubicin (Dox). The DDA structure was confirmed by 1H NMR and LC–MS/MS. Various liposomal formulations (33 formulations) were prepared using DOPE, Egg PC, and DOPC with Tm ˂ 0 and DDA. Some formulations had mPEG₂₀₀₀-DSPE and cholesterol. After extrusion, the external phase was exchanged with sodium bicarbonate to create a pH gradient. Then, Dox was remotely loaded into liposomes. The optimum formulations indicated a burst release of 30% in the presence of 0.1% hydrogen peroxide at pH 6.5, thanks to the redox-sensitive role of DDA moieties; conversely, Caelyx (PEGylated liposomal Dox) showed negligible release at this condition. RS liposomes consisting of DOPE/Egg PC/DDA at 37.5 /60/2.5% molar ratio, efficiently inhibited C26 tumors among other formulations. The release of Dox from RS liposomes in the TME through the DDA link fracture triggered by ROS or glutathione is seemingly the prerequisite for the formulations to exert their therapeutic action. These findings suggest the potential application of such intelligent formulations in the treatment of various malignancies where the TME redox feature could be exploited to achieve an improved therapeutic response.

Functionalized Liposome and Albumin-Based Systems as Carriers for Poorly Water-Soluble Anticancer Drugs: An Updated Review

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. In the available treatments, chemotherapy is one of the most used, but has several associated problems, namely the high toxicity to normal cells and the resistance acquired by cancer cells to the therapeutic agents. The scientific community has been battling against this disease, developing new strategies and new potential chemotherapeutic agents. However, new drugs often exhibit poor solubility in water, which led researchers to develop functionalized nanosystems to carry and, specifically deliver, the drugs to cancer cells, targeting overexpressed receptors, proteins, and organelles. Thus, this review is focused on the recent developments of functionalized nanosystems used to carry poorly water-soluble drugs, with special emphasis on liposomes and albumin-based nanosystems, two major classes of organic nanocarriers with formulations already approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for cancer therapeutics.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Targeted Delivery of the Anti-Cancer Drugs: A Review

Abstract:

Cancer is one of the main reasons for mortality worldwide. Chemotherapeutic agents have been effectively designed to increase certain patients' survival rates, but ordinarily designed chemotherapeutic agents necessarily deliver toxic chemotherapeutic drugs to healthy tissues, resulting in serious side effects. Cancer cells can often acquire drug resistance after repeated dosing of current chemotherapeutic agents, restricting their efficacy. Given such obstacles, investigators have attempted to distribute chemotherapeutic agents using targeted drug delivery systems (DDSs), especially nanotechnology-based DDSs. Lipid-Based Nanoparticles (LBNPs) are a large and complex class of substances that have been utilized to manage a variety of diseases, mostly cancer. Liposomes seem to be the most frequently employed LBNPs, owing to their high biocompatibility, bioactivity, stability, and flexibility; howbeit Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) and Non-structured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) have lately received a lot of interest. Besides that, there are several reports that concentrate on novel therapies via LBNPs to manage various forms of cancer. In the present research, the latest improvements in the application of LBNPs have been shown to deliver different therapeutic agents to cancerous cells and have been demonstrated LBNPs also can be a quite successful candidate in cancer therapy for subsequent use.

Aptamer-mediated doxorubicin delivery reduces HCC burden in 3D organoids model

Epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) is a surface marker which is frequently overexpressed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) but minimally expressed on mature hepatocytes. We developed a specific aptamer against EpCAM (EpCAM-apt) and tested its potential as a drug delivery agent for HCC. The targeting ability of EpCAM-apt was confirmed in vitro and in vivo after which the complex was conjugated with doxorubicin (Dox) to form EpCAM-apt-Dox. The targeting efficacy of the drug-loaded complex against liver cancer stem-like cells (LCSCs) and therapeutic effects in HCC were evaluated. EpCAM-expressing (EpCAM⁺) HCC cells showed characteristics of stem like cells including greater proliferative capacity and tumour sphere formation. EpCAM-apt-Dox selectively delivered Dox to EpCAM⁺ HCC cells with high drug retention and accumulation versus control. EpCAM-apt-Dox reduced the self-renewal capacity and stem-like cell frequency in vitro. Elimination of cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) with EpCAM-apt-Dox significantly inhibited the growth of HCC cells and patient-derived HCC organoids but exerted minimal cytotoxicity to normal liver organoids. Moreover, EpCAM-apt-Dox suppressed the growth of xenograft tumours derived from HCC organoids in vivo and prolonged mouse survival without inducing adverse effects to major organs. Thus, aptamer-based drug delivery to the stem-like cell population is a promising strategy for HCC treatment.

Improving anti-cancer drug delivery performance of magnetic mesoporous silica nanocarriers for more efficient colorectal cancer therapy

BACKGROUND

Improving anti-cancer drug delivery performance can be achieved through designing smart and targeted drug delivery systems (DDSs). For this aim, it is important to evaluate overexpressed biomarkers in the tumor microenvironment (TME) for optimizing DDSs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Herein, we designed a novel DDS based on magnetic mesoporous silica core-shell nanoparticles (SPION@MSNs) in which release of doxorubicin (DOX) at the physiologic pH was blocked with gold gatekeepers. In this platform, we conjugated heterofunctional polyethylene glycol (PEG) onto the outer surface of nanocarriers to increase their biocompatibility. At the final stage, an epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) aptamer as an active targeting moiety was covalently attached (Apt-PEG-Au@NPs-DOX) for selective drug delivery to colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. The physicochemical properties of non-targeted and targeted nanocarriers were fully characterized. The anti-cancer activity, cellular internalization, and then the cell death mechanism of prepared nanocarriers were determined and compared in vitro. Finally, tumor inhibitory effects, biodistribution and possible side effects of the nanocarriers were evaluated in immunocompromised C57BL/6 mice bearing human HT-29 tumors.

RESULTS

Nanocarriers were successfully synthesized with a mean final size diameter of 58.22 ± 8.54 nm. Higher cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of targeted nanocarriers were shown in the EpCAM-positive HT-29 cells as compared to the EpCAM-negative CHO cells, indicating the efficacy of aptamer as a targeting agent. In vivo results in a humanized mouse model showed that targeted nanocarriers could effectively increase DOX accumulation in the tumor site, inhibit tumor growth, and reduce the adverse side effects.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that corporation of a magnetic core, gold gatekeeper, PEG and aptamer can strongly improve drug delivery performance and provide a theranostic DDS for efficient CRC therapy.

Development of theranostic dual-layered Au-liposome for effective tumor targeting and photothermal therapy

BACKGROUND

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is an emerging anti-cancer therapeutic strategy that generates hyperthermia to ablate cancer cells under laser irradiation. Gold (Au) coated liposome (AL) was reported as an effective PTT agent with good biocompatibility and excretory property. However, exposed Au components on liposomes can cause instability in vivo and difficulty in further functionalization.

RESULTS

Herein, we developed a theranostic dual-layered nanomaterial by adding liposomal layer to AL (LAL), followed by attaching polyethylene glycol (PEG) and radiolabeling. Functionalization with PEG improves the in vivo stability of LAL, and radioisotope labeling enables in vivo imaging of LAL. Functionalized LAL is stable in physiological conditions, and ⁶⁴Cu labeled LAL (⁶⁴Cu-LAL) shows a sufficient blood circulation property and an effective tumor targeting ability of 16.4%ID g^-1 from in vivo positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. Also, intravenously injected LAL shows higher tumor targeting, temperature elevation in vivo, and better PTT effect in orthotopic breast cancer mouse model compared to AL. The tumor growth inhibition rate of LAL was 3.9-fold higher than AL.

CONCLUSION

Based on these high stability, in vivo imaging ability, and tumor targeting efficiency, LAL could be a promising theranostic PTT agent.

Nanotechnology-based delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 for cancer treatment

CRISPR/Cas9 (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-associated protein 9) is a potent technology for gene-editing. Owing to its high specificity and efficiency, CRISPR/Cas9 is extensity used for human diseases treatment, especially for cancer, which involves multiple genetic alterations. Different concepts of cancer treatment by CRISPR/Cas9 are established. However, significant challenges remain for its clinical applications. The greatest challenge for CRISPR/Cas9 therapy is how to safely and efficiently deliver it to target sites in vivo. Nanotechnology has greatly contributed to cancer drug delivery. Here, we present the action mechanisms of CRISPR/Cas9, its application in cancer therapy and especially focus on the nanotechnology-based delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 for cancer gene editing and immunotherapy to pave the way for its clinical translation. We detail the difficult barriers for CRISIR/Cas9 delivery in vivo and discuss the relative solutions for encapsulation, target delivery, controlled release, cellular internalization, and endosomal escape.

Redox-sensitive irinotecan liposomes with active ultra-high loading and enhanced intracellular drug release

In this report, a novel irinotecan (IR) encapsulated redox-responsive liposome was developed. The redox-responsive liposomes were prepared based on disulfide phosphatidylcholine (SS-PC), DSPC, DSPE-PEG2000 and cholesterol by ethanol injection method. IR was actively loaded by triethylammonium sucrose octasulfate (TEA8-SOS) gradient method to generate IR/SS-PC liposomes (IR/SS-LP). The particle size of IR/SS-PC was characterized by using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). It was found that IR/SS-LP with 30 % content of SS-PC (IR/SS30-LP) had an average size of 125.5 ± 5.8 nm with a negative zeta potential of -19.5 ± 0.1. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) was further determined to be 98.1 ± 0.8 % and drug loading (DL) was 31.8 ± 0.1 %. The redox-responsiveness of IR/SS-LP was investigated by observing the change of particle size and morphology as well as the release behavior of IR triggered by glutathione (GSH). The data indicated GSH breaks the disulfide bonds in SS-PC and leads to the controlled release of IR. At 1 mM GSH, 60.2 % irinotecan was released from IR/SS30-LP within 24 h. Finally, the effects of IR/SS-LP in cell and animal experiments were evaluated in detail. The results showed that IR/SS30-LP had superior pharmacokinetic and antitumor efficacy compared to free irinotecan and traditional irinotecan liposome (ONIVYDE®-like). Taken together, IR/SS30-LP displayed redox-responsive release of IR, ultra-high loading and enhanced anti-tumor activity, which has great potential for clinical application as a new generation of IR liposomal formulation.

Liposome technologies towards colorectal cancer therapeutics

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer and the fourth most common deadly cancer worldwide. After treatment with curative intent recurrence rates vary with staging 0-13% in Stage 1, 11-61% in S2 and 28-73% in Stage 3. The toxicity to healthy tissues from chemotherapy and radiotherapy and drug resistance severely affect the quality of life and cancer specific outcomes of CRC patients. To overcome some of these limitations, many efforts have been made to develop nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems. Among these nanocarriers, liposomes represented one of the most successful candidates in delivering targeted oncological treatment, improving safety profile and therapeutic efficacy of encapsulated drugs. In this review we will discuss liposome design with a particular focus on the targeting feature and triggering functions. We will also summarise the recent advances in liposomal delivery system for CRC treatment in both the preclinical and clinical studies. We will finally provide our perspectives on the liposome technology development for the future clinical translation. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Conventional treatments for colorectal cancer (CRC) severely affect the therapeutic effects for advanced patients. With the development of nanomedicines, liposomal delivery system appears to be one of the most promising nanocarriers for CRC treatment. In last three years several reviews in this area have been published focusing on the preclinical research and drug delivery function, which is a fairly narrow focus in the field of liposome technology for CRC therapy. Our review presented the most recent advances of the liposome technology (both clinical and preclinical applications) for CRC with strong potential for further clinical translation. We believe it will attract lots of attention from various audiences, including researchers, clinicians and the industry.

Liposomal Nanomedicine: Applications for Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy

The increasing prevalence of cancer, a disease in which rapid and uncontrollable cell growth causes complication and tissue dysfunction, is one of the serious and tense concerns of scientists and physicians. Nowadays, cancer diagnosis and especially its effective treatment have been considered as one of the biggest challenges in health and medicine in the last century. Despite significant advances in drug discovery and delivery, their many adverse effects and inadequate specificity and sensitivity, which usually cause damage to healthy tissues and organs, have been great barriers in using them. Limitation in the duration and amount of these therapeutic agents' administration is also challenging. On the other hand, the incidence of tumor cells that are resistant to typical methods of cancer treatment, such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy, highlights the intense need for innovation, improvement, and development in antitumor drug properties. Liposomes have been suggested as a suitable candidate for drug delivery and cancer treatment in nanomedicine due to their ability to store drugs with different physical and chemical characteristics. Moreover, the high flexibility and potential of liposome structure for chemical modification by conjugating various polymers, ligands, and molecules is a significant pro for liposomes not only to enhance their pharmacological merits but also to improve the effectiveness of anticancer drugs. Liposomes can increase the sensitivity, specificity, and durability of these anti-malignant cell agents in the body and provide remarkable benefits to be applied in nanomedicines. We reviewed the discovery and development of liposomes focusing on their clinical applications to treat diverse sorts of cancers and diseases. How the properties of liposomal drugs can be improved and their opportunity and challenges for cancer therapy were also considered and discussed.

Improving anti-tumour efficacy of PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin by dual targeting of tumour cells and tumour endothelial cells using anti-p32 CGKRK peptide

The aim of this study was to surface-functionalize PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) using anti-p32 CGKRK peptide to evaluate its anti-angiogenic and anti-tumour activities. CGKRK was conjugated to DSPE-mPEG₂₀₀₀-maleimide and post-inserted into PLD at 25, 50, 100, 200 and 400 peptides per each liposome and characterised for their size, zeta potential, drug loading, release properties; and cell binding, cell uptake and cytotoxicity on three C26, 4T1 and human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) cell lines. The in vitro results indicated the better efficiency of the PLD-100 (PLD with 100 CGKRK) formulation on 4T1 and HUVEC cell lines. The results of anti-tube formation and spheroid assay indicated the efficiencies of the PLD-100 formulation compared with Caelyx^® in vitro. The in vivo studies indicated the higher tumour accumulation of PLD-100 formulation in comparison with Caelyx^® which also implied the higher survival rates in mice treated with PLD-100 formulation. Histological evaluations demonstrated that PLD-100 had no side-effects on major organs. In conclusion, the results of this study indicated that PLD-CGKRK- could efficiently target endothelial and tumour parenchymal cells which enhance the therapeutic efficacy of PLD and merits further investigation.

Fabrication and evaluation of aptamer-conjugated paclitaxel-loaded magnetic nanoparticles for targeted therapy on breast cancer cells

Targeted drug delivery vehicles make it possible to deliver anti-cancer drugs to the cells or tissues of interest. Aptamers are peptide or oligonucleotide molecules that can serve as targeting elements of drug carriers. In the current study, we evaluated the capacity of an aptamer-based drug carrier to deliver Paclitaxel (PTX) to cancer cells. After being synthesized, SPIONs@PTX-SYL3C aptamer was characterized using different methods, including differential light scattering (DLS), infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). Encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading efficiency (LE) were also evaluated. The carrier was applied on 4T1, MCF 7, and MCF-10A breast cell lines to evaluate its drug delivery potency and specificity. EE and LE were calculated to be 77.6% and 7.76%, respectively. MTT results revealed that aptameric SPIONs@PTX was more toxic than non-aptameric SPIONs@PTX. Flowcytometry analysis and DAPI staining confirmed that SPIONs@PTX-Aptamer had higher cell internalization rate when compared to non-targeted SPIONs@PTX. Our results indicate that aptamer-conjugated SPIONs@PTX has a good capacity in recognizing its target cells and inhibiting their growth and division.

PrPC Aptamer Conjugated-Gold Nanoparticles for Targeted Delivery of Doxorubicin to Colorectal Cancer Cells

Anticancer drugs, such as fluorouracil (5-FU), oxaliplatin, and doxorubicin (Dox) are commonly used to treat colorectal cancer (CRC); however, owing to their low response rate and adverse effects, the development of efficient drug delivery systems (DDSs) is required. The cellular prion protein PrP^C, which is a cell surface glycoprotein, has been demonstrated to be overexpressed in CRC, however, there has been no research on the development of PrP^C-targeting DDSs for targeted drug delivery to CRC. In this study, PrP^C aptamer (Apt)-conjugated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were synthesized for targeted delivery of Dox to CRC. Thiol-terminated PrP^C-Apt was conjugated to AuNPs, followed by hybridization of its complementary DNA for drug loading. Finally, Dox was loaded onto the AuNPs to synthesize PrP^C-Apt-functionalized doxorubicin-oligomer-AuNPs (PrP^C-Apt DOA). The PrP^C-Apt DOA were spherical nanoparticles with an average diameter of 20 nm. Treatment of CRC cells with PrP^C-Apt DOA induced reactive oxygen species generation by decreasing catalase and superoxide dismutase activities. In addition, treatment with PrP^C-Apt DOA inhibited mitochondrial functions by decreasing the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha, complex 4 activity, and oxygen consumption rates. Compared to free Dox, PrP^C-Apt DOA decreased proliferation and increased apoptosis of CRC cells to a greater degree. In this study, we demonstrated that PrP^C-Apt DOA targeting could effectively deliver Dox to CRC cells. PrP^C-Apt DOA can be used as a treatment for CRC, and have the potential to replace existing anticancer drugs, such as 5-FU, oxaliplatin, and Dox.

Anti-epithelial cell adhesion molecule RNA aptamer-conjugated liposomal doxorubicin as an efficient targeted therapy in mice bearing colon carcinoma tumor model

To overcome the lack of selectivity and nonspecific biodistribution of drugs in the body, targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic agents with aptamers is a very effective method. In this strategy, aptamers could be specifically identified and attach to targeted molecules on the cancerous cells and deliver the chemotherapeutic agents to desired tissue with minimal or no damage to the normal cells. In this study, we designed anti-epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) RNA aptamer conjugated PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (ER-lip) to investigate its in vitro and in vivo anticancer abilities. Data showed that EpCAM aptamer was able to enhance cell uptake and cytotoxic effects of Dox in C26 cell line. The biodistribution study indicated that ER-lip enhanced the tumor accumulation of Dox compared to Caelyx. Also, double staining of isolated tumor cells with anti-CD44-PE-cy5 and anti-EpCAM Cy-7 antibodies indicated that tumor cells expressed a high level of EpCAM⁺ CD44⁺ cells (p ≤ .001) compared to cultured C26 cell line. in vivo results showed that ER-lip promoted survival and reduced tumor growth rate in animal model compared to Caelyx. In conclusion, these results suggested that the ER-lip could be served as promising formulation for the treatment of cancers with the high expression of EpCAM.

Aptamer-Functionalized Nanoparticles in Targeted Delivery and Cancer Therapy

Using nanoparticles to carry and delivery anticancer drugs holds much promise in cancer therapy, but nanoparticles per se are lacking specificity. Active targeting, that is, using specific ligands to functionalize nanoparticles, is attracting much attention in recent years. Aptamers, with their several favorable features like high specificity and affinity, small size, very low immunogenicity, relatively low cost for production, and easiness to store, are one of the best candidates for the specific ligands of nanoparticle functionalization. This review discusses the benefits and challenges of using aptamers to functionalize nanoparticles for active targeting and especially presents nearly all of the published works that address the topic of using aptamers to functionalize nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery and cancer therapy.

Preparation of liposomes containing IFN-gamma and their potentials in cancer immunotherapy: In vitro and in vivo studies in a colon cancer mouse model

The purpose of this study was to prepare non-PEGylated (HSPC/DSPG/Chol, LIPF1) and PEGylated (HSPC/DSPG/Chol/mPEG2000-DSPE, LIPF2) liposomal formulations containing Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and evaluation their effects on macrophages and their antitumor properties. The results showed that the size of liposomal formulations LIP-F1 and LIP-F2 was 120 and 135 nm, respectively. The encapsulation efficiencies of LIP-F1 and LIP-F2 were 52.79% and 49.2%, respectively. Nitric Oxide Synthase (INOS) and arginase assays showed an increase in nitric oxide (NO) level and a reduction in arginase level after the treatment of M2 phenotype macrophage cell line with IFN-γ liposomes. The biodistribution study illustrated the amplitude of iodinated-IFN-γ liposomal formulations in the tumor site, the circulation time and tumor accumulation of LIP-F2 was significantly more than LIPF1. As a result, PEGylated liposomes containing IFN-γ induced significant antitumor responses due to the increased delivery of the cargo to the immune cells and induction of antitumor immune responses.