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Sarasa JL, Okamoto AS, Wright MA, Pierce SE, Capellini TD. Lions & sea lions & bears, oh my: utilizing museum specimens to study the ossification sequence of carnivoran taxa. BMC ZOOL 2024; 9:10. [PMID: 38685130 PMCID: PMC11057098 DOI: 10.1186/s40850-024-00201-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mammalian skeletons are largely formed before birth. Heterochronic changes in skeletal formation can be investigated by comparing the order of ossification for different elements of the skeleton. Due to the challenge of collecting prenatal specimens in viviparous taxa, opportunistically collected museum specimens provide the best material for studying prenatal skeletal development across many mammalian species. Previous studies have investigated ossification sequence in a range of mammalian species, but little is known about the pattern of bone formation in Carnivora. Carnivorans have diverse ecologies, diets, and biomechanical specializations and are well-suited for investigating questions in evolutionary biology. Currently, developmental data on carnivorans is largely limited to domesticated species. To expand available data on carnivoran skeletal development, we used micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) to non-invasively evaluate the degree of ossification in all prenatal carnivoran specimens housed in the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology. By coding the presence or absence of bones in each specimen, we constructed ossification sequences for each species. Parsimov-based genetic inference (PGi) was then used to identify heterochronic shifts between carnivoran lineages and reconstruct the ancestral ossification sequence of Carnivora. RESULTS We used micro-CT to study prenatal ossification sequence in six carnivora species: Eumetopias jubatus (Steller sea lion, n = 6), Herpestes javanicus (small Indian mongoose, n = 1), Panthera leo (lion, n = 1), Urocyon cinereoargenteus (gray fox, n = 1), Ursus arctos arctos (Eurasian brown bear, n = 1), and Viverricula indica (small Indian civet, n = 5). Due to the relatively later stage of collection for the available specimens, few heterochronic shifts were identified. Ossification sequences of feliform species showed complete agreement with the domestic cat. In caniforms, the bear and fox ossification sequences largely matched the dog, but numerous heterochronic shifts were identified in the sea lion. CONCLUSIONS We use museum specimens to generate cranial and postcranial micro-CT data on six species split between the two major carnivoran clades: Caniformia and Feliformia. Our data suggest that the ossification sequence of domestic dogs and cats are likely good models for terrestrial caniforms and feliforms, respectively, but not pinnipeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan L Sarasa
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Mark A Wright
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Stephanie E Pierce
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Terence D Capellini
- Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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2
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Koyabu D. Evolution, conservatism and overlooked homologies of the mammalian skull. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220081. [PMID: 37183902 PMCID: PMC10184252 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, studies integrating palaeontology, embryology and experimental developmental biology have markedly altered our homological understanding of the mammalian skull. Indeed, new evidence suggests that we should revisit and restructure the conventional anatomical terminology applied to the components of the mammalian skull. Notably, these are classical problems that have remained unresolved since the ninteenth century. In this review, I offer perspectives on the overlooked problems associated with the homology, development, and conservatism of the mammalian skull, aiming to encourage future studies in these areas. I emphasise that ossification patterns, bone fusion, cranial sutures and taxon-specific neomorphic bones in the skull are virtually unexplored, and further studies would improve our homological understanding of the mammalian skull. Lastly, I highlight that overlooked bones may exist in the skull that are not yet known to science and suggest that further search is needed. This article is part of the theme issue 'The mammalian skull: development, structure and function'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Koyabu
- Research and Development Center for Precision Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
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3
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Anthwal N, Urban DJ, Sadier A, Takenaka R, Spiro S, Simmons N, Behringer RR, Cretekos CJ, Rasweiler JJ, Sears KE. Insights into the formation and diversification of a novel chiropteran wing membrane from embryonic development. BMC Biol 2023; 21:101. [PMID: 37143038 PMCID: PMC10161559 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-023-01598-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Through the evolution of novel wing structures, bats (Order Chiroptera) became the only mammalian group to achieve powered flight. This achievement preceded the massive adaptive radiation of bats into diverse ecological niches. We investigate some of the developmental processes that underlie the origin and subsequent diversification of one of the novel membranes of the bat wing: the plagiopatagium, which connects the fore- and hind limb in all bat species. RESULTS Our results suggest that the plagiopatagium initially arises through novel outgrowths from the body flank that subsequently merge with the limbs to generate the wing airfoil. Our findings further suggest that this merging process, which is highly conserved across bats, occurs through modulation of the programs controlling the development of the periderm of the epidermal epithelium. Finally, our results suggest that the shape of the plagiopatagium begins to diversify in bats only after this merging has occurred. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates how focusing on the evolution of cellular processes can inform an understanding of the developmental factors shaping the evolution of novel, highly adaptive structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neal Anthwal
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Daniel J Urban
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, USA
- Department of Mammalogy, Division of Vertebrate Biology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA
| | - Alexa Sadier
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, UCLA, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Risa Takenaka
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | | | - Nancy Simmons
- Department of Mammalogy, Division of Vertebrate Biology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA
| | - Richard R Behringer
- Department of Genetics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, USA
| | | | - John J Rasweiler
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Karen E Sears
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, UCLA, Los Angeles, USA.
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4
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Li Y, Brinkworth A, Green E, Oyston J, Wills M, Ruta M. Divergent vertebral formulae shape the evolution of axial complexity in mammals. Nat Ecol Evol 2023; 7:367-381. [PMID: 36878987 PMCID: PMC9998275 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-023-01982-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
Abstract
Complexity, defined as the number of parts and their degree of differentiation, is a poorly explored aspect of macroevolutionary dynamics. The maximum anatomical complexity of organisms has undoubtedly increased through evolutionary time. However, it is unclear whether this increase is a purely diffusive process or whether it is at least partly driven, occurring in parallel in most or many lineages and with increases in the minima as well as the means. Highly differentiated and serially repeated structures, such as vertebrae, are useful systems with which to investigate these patterns. We focus on the serial differentiation of the vertebral column in 1,136 extant mammal species, using two indices that quantify complexity as the numerical richness and proportional distribution of vertebrae across presacral regions and a third expressing the ratio between thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. We address three questions. First, we ask whether the distribution of complexity values in major mammal groups is similar or whether clades have specific signatures associated with their ecology. Second, we ask whether changes in complexity throughout the phylogeny are biased towards increases and whether there is evidence of driven trends. Third, we ask whether evolutionary shifts in complexity depart from a uniform Brownian motion model. Vertebral counts, but not complexity indices, differ significantly between major groups and exhibit greater within-group variation than recognized hitherto. We find strong evidence of a trend towards increasing complexity, where higher values propagate further increases in descendant lineages. Several increases are inferred to have coincided with major ecological or environmental shifts. We find support for multiple-rate models of evolution for all complexity metrics, suggesting that increases in complexity occurred in stepwise shifts, with evidence for widespread episodes of recent rapid divergence. Different subclades evolve more complex vertebral columns in different configurations and probably under different selective pressures and constraints, with widespread convergence on the same formulae. Further work should therefore focus on the ecological relevance of differences in complexity and a more detailed understanding of historical patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimeng Li
- Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK.,Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, CAS, Nanjing, China
| | - Andrew Brinkworth
- Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Emily Green
- Joseph Banks Laboratories, Department of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
| | - Jack Oyston
- Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Matthew Wills
- Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK.
| | - Marcello Ruta
- Joseph Banks Laboratories, Department of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK.
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Gündemir MG, Szara T, Spataru C, Demircioglu I, Turek B, Petrovas G, Spataru MC. Shape differences of the Carina sterni in birds of various locomotion types. Anat Histol Embryol 2023; 52:190-196. [PMID: 36181376 DOI: 10.1111/ahe.12870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The anatomy of the sternum in birds varies according to their habitats and type of locomotion. In particular, the carina sterni manifest different shape variations. In this study, the shape of the carina sterni was investigated by means of geometric morphometrics. Birds of different types of locomotion were used in the study: flying, swimming, and terrestrial. Ducks and chickens show a wider variety of shapes. Pigeons are the species with the least differences. The margo cranialis carinae in a turkey is the flattest compared to other species. In chickens, the apex carinae is more caudally than the base of the carina sterni. The margo cranialis of the carina sterni in ducks is concave. The differences in centroid size and shape differences between species collectively are statistically significant (p < 0.0001). The most distinct shape contrast is between the duck and turkey (p: 0.0003). Form differences between the ducks and geese as well as between the chicken and turkey are statistically insignificant. There is less variation in the shape of the carina sterni among avian species representing the same type of locomotion. Although there are many comparative morphological and morphometric studies of birds, shape analysis studies revealing the interspecific differences and similarities of the sternum are very limited. Morphology of the carina sterni can be useful in taxonomic investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tomasz Szara
- Department of Morphological Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Scienc-es-SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Constantin Spataru
- Department of Preclinics, "Ion Ionescu de la Brad", University of Life Sciences, Iasi, Romania
| | - Ismail Demircioglu
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Harran University, Sanliurfa, Turkey
| | - Bernard Turek
- Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Georgios Petrovas
- Veterinary Faculty, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Mihaela Claudia Spataru
- Department of Public Health, "Ion Ionescu de la Brad", University of Life Sciences, Iasi, Romania
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Shkil FN, Borisov V, Seleznev D, Kapitanova D, Abdissa B, Dzerzhinskii K, Smirnov S. Intra- and interspecific variability of the cranial ossification sequences in Barbus sensu lato. Evol Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-022-09563-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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7
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Embryonic Development of the Avian Sternum and Its Morphological Adaptations for Optimizing Locomotion. DIVERSITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/d13100481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The sternum is part of the forelimb appendicular skeleton found in most terrestrial vertebrates and has become adapted across tetrapods for distinctive modes of locomotion. We review the regulatory mechanisms underlying sternum and forelimb development and discuss the possible gene expression modulation that could be responsible for the sternal adaptations and associated reduction in the forelimb programme found in flightless birds. In three phylogenetically divergent vertebrate lineages that all undertake powered flight, a ventral extension of the sternum, named the keel, has evolved independently, most strikingly in volant birds. In flightless birds, however, the sternal keel is absent, and the sternum is flattened. We review studies in a variety of species that have analysed adaptations in sterna morphology that are related to the animal’s mode of locomotion on land, in the sky and in water.
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Howenstine AO, Sadier A, Anthwal N, Lau CL, Sears KE. Non-model systems in mammalian forelimb evo-devo. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2021; 69:65-71. [PMID: 33684847 PMCID: PMC8364859 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2021.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Mammal forelimbs are highly diverse, ranging from the elongated wing of a bat to the stout limb of the mole. The mammal forelimb has been a long-standing system for the study of early developmental patterning, proportional variation, shape change, and the reduction of elements. However, most of this work has been performed in mice, which neglects the wide variation present across mammal forelimbs. This review emphasizes the critical role of non-model systems in limb evo-devo and highlights new emerging models and their potential. We discuss the role of gene networks in limb evolution, and touch on functional analyses that lay the groundwork for further developmental studies. Mammal limb evo-devo is a rich field, and here we aim to synthesize the findings of key recent works and the questions to which they lead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aidan O Howenstine
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, United States
| | - Alexa Sadier
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, United States
| | - Neal Anthwal
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, United States; Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, King's CollegeLondon, 27th Floor Guy's Tower, London, SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Clive Lf Lau
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, United States
| | - Karen E Sears
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, United States.
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López-Aguirre C, Hand SJ, Koyabu D, Tu VT, Wilson LAB. Prenatal Developmental Trajectories of Fluctuating Asymmetry in Bat Humeri. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:639522. [PMID: 34124034 PMCID: PMC8187808 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.639522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluctuating asymmetry (random fluctuations between the left and right sides of the body) has been interpreted as an index to quantify both the developmental instabilities and homeostatic capabilities of organisms, linking the phenotypic and genotypic aspects of morphogenesis. However, studying the ontogenesis of fluctuating asymmetry has been limited to mostly model organisms in postnatal stages, missing prenatal trajectories of asymmetry that could better elucidate decoupled developmental pathways controlling symmetric bone elongation and thickening. In this study, we quantified the presence and magnitude of asymmetry during the prenatal development of bats, focusing on the humerus, a highly specialized bone adapted in bats to perform under multiple functional demands. We deconstructed levels of asymmetry by measuring the longitudinal and cross-sectional asymmetry of the humerus using a combination of linear measurements and geometric morphometrics. We tested the presence of different types of asymmetry and calculated the magnitude of size-controlled fluctuating asymmetry to assess developmental instability. Statistical support for the presence of fluctuating asymmetry was found for both longitudinal and cross-sectional asymmetry, explaining on average 16% of asymmetric variation. Significant directional asymmetry accounted for less than 6.6% of asymmetric variation. Both measures of fluctuating asymmetry remained relatively stable throughout ontogeny, but cross-sectional asymmetry was significantly different across developmental stages. Finally, we did not find a correspondence between developmental patterns of longitudinal and cross-sectional asymmetry, indicating that processes promoting symmetrical bone elongation and thickening work independently. We suggest various functional pressures linked to newborn bats’ ecology associated with longitudinal (altricial flight capabilities) and cross-sectional (precocial clinging ability) developmental asymmetry differentially. We hypothesize that stable magnitudes of fluctuating asymmetry across development could indicate the presence of developmental mechanisms buffering developmental instability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilo López-Aguirre
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Earth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Suzanne J Hand
- Earth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Daisuke Koyabu
- Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong.,Research and Development Center for Precision Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Vuong Tan Tu
- Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam.,Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Laura A B Wilson
- Earth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,School of Archaeology and Anthropology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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10
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López-Aguirre C, Hand SJ, Koyabu D, Tu VT, Wilson LAB. Phylogeny and foraging behaviour shape modular morphological variation in bat humeri. J Anat 2020; 238:1312-1329. [PMID: 33372711 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Bats show a remarkable ecological diversity that is reflected both in dietary and foraging guilds (FGs). Cranial ecomorphological adaptations linked to diet have been widely studied in bats, using a variety of anatomical, computational and mathematical approaches. However, foraging-related ecomorphological adaptations and the concordance between cranial and postcranial morphological adaptations remain unexamined in bats and limited to the interpretation of traditional aerodynamic properties of the wing (e.g. wing loading [WL] and aspect ratio [AR]). For this reason, the postcranial ecomorphological diversity in bats and its drivers remain understudied. Using 3D virtual modelling and geometric morphometrics (GMM), we explored the phylogenetic, ecological and biological drivers of humeral morphology in bats, evaluating the presence and magnitude of modularity and integration. To explore decoupled patterns of variation across the bone, we analysed whole-bone shape, diaphyseal and epiphyseal shape. We also tested whether traditional aerodynamic wing traits correlate with humeral shape. By studying 37 species from 20 families (covering all FGs and 85% of dietary guilds), we found similar patterns of variation in whole-bone and diaphyseal shape and unique variation patterns in epiphyseal shape. Phylogeny, diet and FG significantly correlated with shape variation at all levels, whereas size only had a significant effect on epiphyseal morphology. We found a significant phylogenetic signal in all levels of humeral shape. Epiphyseal shape significantly correlated with wing AR. Statistical support for a diaphyseal-epiphyseal modular partition of the humerus suggests a functional partition of shape variability. Our study is the first to show within-structure modular morphological variation in the appendicular skeleton of any living tetrapod. Our results suggest that diaphyseal shape correlates more with phylogeny, whereas epiphyseal shape correlates with diet and FG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilo López-Aguirre
- Earth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Suzanne J Hand
- Earth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Daisuke Koyabu
- Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong.,Department of Molecular Craniofacial Embryology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Vuong Tan Tu
- Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam.,Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Laura A B Wilson
- Earth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,School of Archaeology & Anthropology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Postnatal development of the largest subterranean mammal (Bathyergus suillus): Morphology, osteogenesis, and modularity of the appendicular skeleton. Dev Dyn 2019; 248:1101-1128. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
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