1
|
Long HZ, Zhou ZW, Cheng Y, Luo HY, Li FJ, Xu SG, Gao LC. The Role of Microglia in Alzheimer’s Disease From the Perspective of Immune Inflammation and Iron Metabolism. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:888989. [PMID: 35847685 PMCID: PMC9284275 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.888989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common type of senile dementia, includes the complex pathogenesis of abnormal deposition of amyloid beta-protein (Aβ), phosphorylated tau (p-tau) and neuroimmune inflammatory. The neurodegenerative process of AD triggers microglial activation, and the overactivation of microglia produces a large number of neuroimmune inflammatory factors. Microglia dysfunction can lead to disturbances in iron metabolism and enhance iron-induced neuronal degeneration in AD, while elevated iron levels in brain areas affect microglia phenotype and function. In this manuscript, we firstly discuss the role of microglia in AD and then introduce the role of microglia in the immune-inflammatory pathology of AD. Their role in AD iron homeostasis is emphasized. Recent studies on microglia and ferroptosis in AD are also reviewed. It will help readers better understand the role of microglia in iron metabolism in AD, and provides a basis for better regulation of iron metabolism disorders in AD and the discovery of new potential therapeutic targets for AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Zhi Long
- School of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Changsha, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang, China
| | - Zi-Wei Zhou
- School of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Changsha, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang, China
| | - Yan Cheng
- School of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Changsha, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang, China
| | - Hong-Yu Luo
- School of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Changsha, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang, China
| | - Feng-Jiao Li
- School of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Changsha, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang, China
| | - Shuo-Guo Xu
- School of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Changsha, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang, China
| | - Li-Chen Gao
- School of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Changsha, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Microenvironment Responsive Drug Research, Hengyang, China
- *Correspondence: Li-Chen Gao,
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Chaudhary N, Jayaraman A, Reinhardt C, Campbell JD, Bosmann M. A single-cell lung atlas of complement genes identifies the mesothelium and epithelium as prominent sources of extrahepatic complement proteins. Mucosal Immunol 2022; 15:927-939. [PMID: 35672453 PMCID: PMC9173662 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-022-00534-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
To understand functional duality of the complement system in host defense and lung injury, a more comprehensive view of its localized production in the lung, and the impact of age on complement production are essential. Here, we explored the expression of complement genes through computational analysis of preexisting single cell RNA sequencing data from lung transcriptomes of healthy young (3 months) and old C57BL/6 mice (24 months), and humans. We characterized the distribution of 48 complement genes. Across 28 distinct immune and non-immune cell types in mice, mesothelial cells expressed the greatest number of complement genes (e.g., C1ra, C2, C3), and regulators (e.g., Serping1, Cfh). C5 was abundant in type II alveolar epithelial cells and C1q in interstitial lung macrophages. There were only moderate differences in gene expression between young and old mice. Among 57 human lung cell types, mesothelial cells showed abundant complement expression. A few differences in gene expression (e.g., FCN1, CFI, C6, C7) were also evident between mice and human lung cells. Our findings present a novel perspective on the expression patterns of complement genes in normal lungs. These findings highlight the potential functions of complement in tissue-specific homeostasis and immunity and may foster a mechanistic understanding of its role in lung health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neha Chaudhary
- Pulmonary Center, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Archana Jayaraman
- Pulmonary Center, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Christoph Reinhardt
- Center for Thrombosis and Hemostasis, University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Joshua D Campbell
- Division of Computational Biomedicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Markus Bosmann
- Pulmonary Center, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
- Center for Thrombosis and Hemostasis, University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Reagan AM, Onos KD, Heuer SE, Sasner M, Howell GR. Improving mouse models for the study of Alzheimer's disease. Curr Top Dev Biol 2022; 148:79-113. [PMID: 35461569 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2021.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease whose risk is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Although a number of pathological hallmarks have been extensively studied over the last several decades, a complete picture of disease initiation and progression remains unclear. We now understand that numerous cell types and systems are involved in AD pathogenesis, and that this cellular profile may present differently for each individual, making the creation of relevant mouse models challenging. However, with increasingly diverse data made available by genome-wide association studies, we can identify and examine new genes and pathways involved in genetic risk for AD, many of which involve vascular health and inflammation. When developing mouse models, it is critical to assess (1) an aging timeline that represents onset and progression in humans, (2) genetic variants and context, (3) environmental factors present in human populations that result in both neuropathological and functional changes-themes that we address in this chapter.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sarah E Heuer
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, United States; Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | | | - Gareth R Howell
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, United States; Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cacabelos R, Carrera I, Martínez-Iglesias O, Cacabelos N, Naidoo V. What is the gold standard model for Alzheimer's disease drug discovery and development? Expert Opin Drug Discov 2021; 16:1415-1440. [PMID: 34330186 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2021.1960502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Alzheimer's disease models (ADMs) are currently used for drug development (DD). More than 20,000 molecules were screened for AD treatment over decades, with only one drug (Aducanumab)FDA-approved over the past 18 years. A revision of pathogenic concepts and ADMs are needed.Areas covered: The authors discuss herein preclinical models including: (i) in vitro models (cell lines, primary neuron cell cultures, iPSC-derived brain cells), (ii) ex vivo models, and (iii) in vivo models (artificial, transgenic, non-transgenic and induced).Expert opinion: The following types of ADMs have been reported: Mouse models (45.08%), Rat models (15.04%), Non-human Primate models (0.76%), Rabbit models (0.46%), Cat models (0.53%), Pig models (0.30%), Guinea pig models (0.15%), Octodon degu models (0.02%), Dog models (0.54%), Drosophila melanogaster models (1.79%), Zebrafish models (0.50%), Caenorhabditis elegans (1.21%), Cell culture models (3.31%), Cholinergic models (8.26%), Neurotoxic models (6.79%), Neuroinflammation models (6.92%), Neurovascular models (7.88%), and Microbiome models (0.45%).No single ADM faithfully reproduces all the pathogenic events in the human AD phenotype spectrum. ADMs should be different for (i) pathogenic studies vs basic DD, and (ii) preventive interventions vs symptomatic treatments. There cannot be an ideal ADM for DD, because AD is a spectrum of syndromes. DD can integrate pathogenic, mechanistic, metabolic, transporter and pleiotropic genes in a multisystem model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ramón Cacabelos
- Departments of Genomic Medicine, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
| | - Iván Carrera
- Health Biotechnology, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
| | - Olaia Martínez-Iglesias
- Medical Epigenetics, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
| | - Natalia Cacabelos
- Medical Documentation, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
| | - Vinogran Naidoo
- Basic Neuroscience, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Schartz ND, Tenner AJ. The good, the bad, and the opportunities of the complement system in neurodegenerative disease. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:354. [PMID: 33239010 PMCID: PMC7690210 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02024-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The complement cascade is a critical effector mechanism of the innate immune system that contributes to the rapid clearance of pathogens and dead or dying cells, as well as contributing to the extent and limit of the inflammatory immune response. In addition, some of the early components of this cascade have been clearly shown to play a beneficial role in synapse elimination during the development of the nervous system, although excessive complement-mediated synaptic pruning in the adult or injured brain may be detrimental in multiple neurogenerative disorders. While many of these later studies have been in mouse models, observations consistent with this notion have been reported in human postmortem examination of brain tissue. Increasing awareness of distinct roles of C1q, the initial recognition component of the classical complement pathway, that are independent of the rest of the complement cascade, as well as the relationship with other signaling pathways of inflammation (in the periphery as well as the central nervous system), highlights the need for a thorough understanding of these molecular entities and pathways to facilitate successful therapeutic design, including target identification, disease stage for treatment, and delivery in specific neurologic disorders. Here, we review the evidence for both beneficial and detrimental effects of complement components and activation products in multiple neurodegenerative disorders. Evidence for requisite co-factors for the diverse consequences are reviewed, as well as the recent studies that support the possibility of successful pharmacological approaches to suppress excessive and detrimental complement-mediated chronic inflammation, while preserving beneficial effects of complement components, to slow the progression of neurodegenerative disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole D. Schartz
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
| | - Andrea J. Tenner
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Reich M, Paris I, Ebeling M, Dahm N, Schweitzer C, Reinhardt D, Schmucki R, Prasad M, Köchl F, Leist M, Cowley SA, Zhang JD, Patsch C, Gutbier S, Britschgi M. Alzheimer's Risk Gene TREM2 Determines Functional Properties of New Type of Human iPSC-Derived Microglia. Front Immunol 2020; 11:617860. [PMID: 33613545 PMCID: PMC7887311 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.617860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are key in the homeostatic well-being of the brain and microglial dysfunction has been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Due to the many limitations to study microglia in situ or isolated for large scale drug discovery applications, there is a high need to develop robust and scalable human cellular models of microglia with reliable translatability to the disease. Here, we describe the generation of microglia-like cells from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) with distinct phenotypes for mechanistic studies in AD. We started out from an established differentiation protocol to generate primitive macrophage precursors mimicking the yolk sac ontogeny of microglia. Subsequently, we tested 36 differentiation conditions for the cells in monoculture where we exposed them to various combinations of media, morphogens, and extracellular matrices. The optimized protocol generated robustly ramified cells expressing key microglial markers. Bulk mRNA sequencing expression profiles revealed that compared to cells obtained in co-culture with neurons, microglia-like cells derived from a monoculture condition upregulate mRNA levels for Triggering Receptor Expressed On Myeloid Cells 2 (TREM2), which is reminiscent to the previously described disease-associated microglia. TREM2 is a risk gene for AD and an important regulator of microglia. The regulatory function of TREM2 in these cells was confirmed by comparing wild type with isogenic TREM2 knock-out iPSC microglia. The TREM2-deficient cells presented with stronger increase in free cytosolic calcium upon stimulation with ATP and ADP, as well as stronger migration towards complement C5a, compared to TREM2 expressing cells. The functional differences were associated with gene expression modulation of key regulators of microglia. In conclusion, we have established and validated a work stream to generate functional human iPSC-derived microglia-like cells by applying a directed and neuronal co-culture independent differentiation towards functional phenotypes in the context of AD. These cells can now be applied to study AD-related disease settings and to perform compound screening and testing for drug discovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Reich
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland.,In Vitro Toxicology and Biomedicine, Department inaugurated by the Doerenkamp-Zbinden Foundation, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Iñaki Paris
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland.,Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Science Park of the UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain
| | - Martin Ebeling
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nadine Dahm
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christophe Schweitzer
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dieter Reinhardt
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Roland Schmucki
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Megana Prasad
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabian Köchl
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marcel Leist
- In Vitro Toxicology and Biomedicine, Department inaugurated by the Doerenkamp-Zbinden Foundation, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Sally A Cowley
- James Martin Stem Cell Facility, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jitao David Zhang
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Patsch
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Simon Gutbier
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Therapeutic Modalities, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Markus Britschgi
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience and Rare Diseases Discovery and Translational Area, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|