Evaluation of cellular and molecular impact of zearalenone and Escherichia coli co-exposure on IPEC-1 cells using microarray technology

Effects of Hericium erinaceus polysaccharide in porcine IPEC-J2 intestinal epithelial cells against apoptosis induced by oxidative stress

This study was intended to investigate whether Hericium erinaceus polysaccharides (HEP) prevent oxidative stress and apoptosis of intestinal porcine epithelial cells from jejunum (IPEC-J2 cells) induced by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Crude HEP were extracted and purified by chromatography. The ultraviolet and infrared spectra and monosaccharide composition of HEP were analyzed. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was quantified by flow cytometry method, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) production were determined by TBARS. Also, apoptosis was analyzed by flow cytometry method and the apoptosis-related regulatory molecules were determined by microplate or western blotting method. Our results showed that pretreatment of IPEC-J2 cells with HEP significantly scavenged ROS and reduced LDH and MDA production. HEP also reduced apoptosis and kept polarity of the mitochondrial membrane potential. Moreover, HEP increased the content of caspase-3 and PARP, and protein expression of Bcl-2, while inhibited Bax and Bad and reduced the content of caspase-9 and release of CytC. Meanwhile, HEP inhibited the protein expression of TNFR1, FAS, and FASL, and decreased the content of caspase-8. The results indicated that HEP had a protective effect against oxidative stress in IPEC-J2 cells and the underlying mechanism was reducing apoptosis via mitochondrial and death receptor pathways.

Benzo[a]pyrene induces epithelial tight junction disruption and apoptosis via inhibiting the initiation of autophagy in intestinal porcine epithelial cells

Ingestion of food contaminated with benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) poses health risks to animals and humans. However, the toxicity of B[a]P exposure on the intestinal barrier function and underlying mechanisms remain obscure. In the present study, intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-1) were challenged with different doses of B[a]P and its deleterious effects were determined. We found that B[a]P exposure led to impaired intestinal tight junction function as evidenced by reduced transepithelial electric resistance, increased permeability, and downregulated intestinal tight junction protein levels. Further study demonstrated that B[a]P treatment induced cell cycle arrest, and resulted in oxidative damage-related apoptosis in IPEC-1 cells. Intriguingly, we observed an inhibition of autophagy and an activation of unfolded protein response (UPR) in B[a]P-challenged cells, when compared with controls. To investigate the role of autophagy on B[a]P-induced epithelial tight junction disruption and apoptosis, cells were cotreated with B[a]P and rapamycin, and rapamycin dramatically improved intestinal tight junction and reduced apoptosis, indicating a protective effect of autophagy for the cells in response to B[a]P treatment. We also explored the role of UPR in B[a]P-induced cellular damage by using 4-phenylbutyric acid, an antagonist of UPR. Interestingly, B[a]P-induced apoptosis and dysfunction of the intestinal tight junction were exacerbated by 4-phenylbutyric acid, and the 4-phenylbutyric acid didn't ameliorate the inhibitory effects of B[a]P on microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3-II) and lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP2) in IPEC-1 cells. These novel findings provided herein indicated that B[a]P induces intestinal epithelial tight junction disruption and apoptotic cell death via inhibiting autophagy in IPEC-1 cells.

Zearalenone toxicosis on reproduction as estrogen receptor selective modulator and alleviation of zearalenone biodegradative agent in pregnant sows

BACKGROUND

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a resorcylic acid lactone derivative derived from various Fusarium species that are widely found in food and feeds. The molecular structure of ZEA resembles that of the mammalian hormone 17β-oestradiol, thus zearalenone and its metabolites are known to compete with endogenous hormones for estrogen receptors binding sites and to activate transcription of oestrogen-responsive genes. However, the effect of long-term low-dose ZEA exposure on the reproductive response to Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G culture for first-parity gilts has not yet been investigated. This study was conducted to investigate the toxic effects of ZEA as an estrogen receptor selective modulator and the alleviating effects of Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G cultures as ZEA biodegraders in pregnant sows during their first parity.

RESULTS

A total of 80 first-parity gilts (Yorkshire × Landrace) were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments during gestation: CO (positive control); MO (negative control, 246 μg ZEA/kg diet); COA (CO + B. subtilis ANSB01G culture with 2 × 10⁹ CFU/kg diet); MOA (MO + B. subtilis ANSB01G culture with 2 × 10⁹ CFU/kg diet). There were 20 replications per treatment with one gilt per replicate. Feeding low-dose ZEA naturally contaminated diets disordered most of reproductive hormones secretion and affected estrogen receptor-α and estrogen receptor-β concentrations in serum and specific organs and led to moderate histopathological changes of gilts, but did not cause significant detrimental effects on reproductive performance. The addition of Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G culture to the diet can effectively relieve the competence of ZEA to estrogen receptor and the disturbance of reproductive hormones secretion, and then ameliorate toxicosis of ZEA in gilts.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our study investigated the effects of feeding low-dose ZEA on reproduction in pregnant sows during their first parity. Feeding low-dose ZEA could modulate estrogen receptor-α and -β concentrations in specific organs, cause disturbance of reproductive hormones and vulva swelling, and damage organ histopathology and up-regulate apoptosis in sow models. Diet with Bacillus subtilis ANSB01G alleviated negative effects of the ZEA on gilts to some extent.

The Antagonistic Effect of Glutamine on Zearalenone-Induced Apoptosis via PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway in IPEC-J2 Cells

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non-steroidal estrogen mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi, which inevitably exists in human and animal food or feed. Previous studies indicated that apoptosis seems to be a key determinant of ZEN-induced toxicity. This experiment aimed to investigate the protective effects of Glutamine (Gln) on ZEN-induced cytotoxicity in IPEC-J2 cells. The experimental results showed that Gln was able to alleviate the decline of cell viability and reduce the production of reactive oxygen species and calcium (Ca²⁺) induced by ZEN. Meanwhile, the mRNA expression of antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase was up-regulated after Gln addition. Subsequently, Gln supplementation resulted in the nuclear fission and Bad-fluorescence distribution of apoptotic cells were weakened, and the mRNA expression and protein expression of pro-apoptotic genes and apoptotic rates were significantly reduced. Moreover, ZEN reduced the phosphorylation Akt, decreased the expression of Bcl-2, and increased the expression of Bax. Gln alleviated the above changes induced by ZEN and the antagonistic effects of Gln were disturbed by PI3K inhibitor (LY294002). To conclude, this study revealed that Gln exhibited significant protective effects on ZEN-induced apoptosis, and this effect may be attributed to the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Efficacy of lactic acid bacteria supplementation against Fusarium graminearum growth in vitro and inhibition of Zearalenone causing inflammation and oxidative stress in vivo

Fusarium graminearum invasion and Zearalenone (ZEN)-mycotoxin contamination are considered the most global threat to food and feed. This study investigates the effect Lactobacillus plantarum MON03 viable cells (LPVC) and LP free cells supernatant (LPFCS) against Fusarium graminearum growth and ZEN production in vitro and evaluates if treatment with LP viable cells can counteract the negative effect of ZEN on inflammation and oxidative stress in mesenteric lymph nodes and serum biochemical parameters in mice. For the in vitro study, 7 days of LPVC, LPFCS and F. graminearum co-incubation at different concentrations was done in order to determine the antifungal activity and ZEN- production inhibition. Regarding the in vivo study, Balb/c mice were treated as following: Control, ZEN group, LP group and ZEN + LP group for 30 days. In vitro, LPVC showed an excellent antifungal activity after 7 days of co-incubation (10³ CFU/ml). LPVC was succeeded also to inhibit ZEN production by the fungi. In vivo, ZEN has shown an important oxidative damage. As a result of the exposure to ZEN, an increase cytokines, as effectors of an inflammatory response, were observed in the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) of intoxicated mice. In parallel, a serum biochemical change was also observed. LPVC induced a reduction of ZEN-induced oxidative stress and counteracts also the biochemical parameters damage and the inflammatory markers increased by ZEN. LPVC can be valorized as an anti-cating agent in the vitro and in the gastro-intestinal tract to decrease ZEN-toxic effects.

Zearalenone and the Immune Response

Zearalenone (ZEA) is an estrogenic fusariotoxin, being classified as a phytoestrogen, or as a mycoestrogen. ZEA and its metabolites are able to bind to estrogen receptors, 17β-estradiol specific receptors, leading to reproductive disorders which include low fertility, abnormal fetal development, reduced litter size and modification at the level of reproductive hormones especially in female pigs. ZEA has also significant effects on immune response with immunostimulatory or immunosuppressive results. This review presents the effects of ZEA and its derivatives on all levels of the immune response such as innate immunity with its principal component inflammatory response as well as the acquired immunity with two components, humoral and cellular immune response. The mechanisms involved by ZEA in triggering its effects are addressed. The review cited more than 150 publications and discuss the results obtained from in vitro and in vivo experiments exploring the immunotoxicity produced by ZEA on different type of immune cells (phagocytes related to innate immunity and lymphocytes related to acquired immunity) as well as on immune organs. The review indicates that despite the increasing number of studies analyzing the mechanisms used by ZEA to modulate the immune response the available data are unsubstantial and needs further works.

Occurrence, Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Management Strategies of Zearalenone in Food and Feed: A Review

Mycotoxins represent an assorted range of secondary fungal metabolites that extensively occur in numerous food and feed ingredients at any stage during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin categorized as a xenoestrogen poses structural similarity with natural estrogens that enables its binding to the estrogen receptors leading to hormonal misbalance and numerous reproductive diseases. ZEN is mainly found in crops belonging to temperate regions, primarily in maize and other cereal crops that form an important part of various food and feed. Because of the significant adverse effects of ZEN on both human and animal, there is an alarming need for effective detection, mitigation, and management strategies to assure food and feed safety and security. The present review tends to provide an updated overview of the different sources, occurrence and biosynthetic mechanisms of ZEN in various food and feed. It also provides insight to its harmful effects on human health and agriculture along with its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Proteome changes induced by a short, non-cytotoxic exposure to the mycoestrogen zearalenone in the pig intestine

Intestinal epithelial homeostasis is regulated by a complex network of signaling pathways. Among them is estrogen signaling, important for the proliferation and differentiation of epithelial cells, immune signaling and metabolism. The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) is an estrogen disruptor naturally found in food and feed. The exposure of the intestine to ZEN has toxic effects including alteration of the immune status and is possibly implicated in carcinogenesis, but the molecular mechanisms linked with these effects are not clear. Our objective was to explore the proteome changes induced by a short, non-cytotoxic exposure to ZEN in the intestine using pig jejunal explants. Our results indicated that ZEN promotes little proteome changes, but significantly related with an induction of ERα signaling and a consequent disruption of highly interrelated signaling cascades, such as NF-κB, ERK1/2, CDX2 and HIF1α. The toxicity of ZEN leads also to an altered immune status characterized by the activation of the chemokine CXCR4/SDF-1 axis and an accumulation of MHC-I proteins. Our results connect the estrogen disrupting activity of ZEN with its intestinal toxic effect, associating the exposure to ZEN with cell-signaling disorders similar to those involved in the onset and progression of diseases such as cancer and chronic inflammatory disorders. SIGNIFICANCE: The proteomics results presented in our study indicate that the endocrine disruptor activity of ZEN is able to regulate a cascade of highly inter-connected signaling events essential for the small intestinal crypt-villus cycle and immune status. These molecular mechanisms are also implicated in the onset and progress of intestinal immune disorders and cancer indicating that exposure to ZEN could play an important role in intestinal pathogenesis.

Transcriptome and chromatin accessibility in porcine intestinal epithelial cells upon Zearalenone exposure

Zearalenone (ZEA) is one of the main mycotoxins widely spread in contaminated cereal crops, which poses a great threat to food safety as well as human and animal health. Biological control strategies are emerging as important solutions to eliminate mycotoxin contaminations. However, molecular mechanisms underlying ZEA cytotoxic effects are only partly understood. Noncoding RNAs and chromatin accessibilities are important regulators of gene expression and implicate in a variety of biological processes. Here, we established a study model of porcine intestinal epithelial cells upon ZEA exposure and presented a RNA-seq dataset for mRNA, microRNA, and lncRNA profiling in 18 experimental samples. In addition, chromatin accessibilities of four samples were also explored by ATAC-seq. This dataset will shed new light on gene expression profiling and transcriptional regulation of animal cells in the response to ZEA exposure, which further contributes to detecting biomarkers and drug targets for predicting and controlling ZEA contamination.

MicroRNA profiling in kidney in pigs fed ochratoxin A contaminated diet

OTA is a toxic metabolite produced by fungus belonging to Aspergillus and Penicillium genera. Kidney is the main target of this toxin; OTA is considered as one of the etiological factors at the origin of the human Balkan endemic nephropathy. microRNA are short non-coding transcrips (18-22 nucleotides in length) regulating key cellular processes. Various miRNAs have been established to play important roles in development of renal carcinoma and urothelial cancer. The objective of this study is to analyse the miRNA profiling in the kidney of piglets experimentally intoxicated with feed contaminated with OTA. Fifteen piglets (five pigs/group) were randomly distributed into 3 groups, fed normal diet (Group 1: control), or diets contaminated with OTA in two concentrations: 50 μg OTA/kg feed (Group 2: 50 μg OTA/kg feed) or 200 μg OTA/kg feed (Group 3: 200 μg OTA/kg feed) for 28 days. At the end of the experiment blood samples were taken for serological analyses. Animals from control group and 200 μg OTA/kg feed were sacrificed and kidney samples were taken for histological and molecular analyses. As resulted from molecular profiling study there are 8 miRNA differentially expressed in OTA kidney vs control kidney, in which five miRNA were overexpressed in the kidney of OTA intoxicated animals: miR-497 (FC = 6.34), miR-133a-3p (FC = 5.75), miR-423-3p (FC = 5.48), miR-34a (FC = 1.68), miR-542-3p (1.65) while three miRNA were downregulated: miR-421-3p (FC = -3.96); miR-490 (FC = -3.87); miR-9840-3p (FC = -2.13). The altered miRNAs as effect of OTA are strongly connected to the engine of cancer, disturbing nodal points in different pathways, as TP53 signalling. This proof-of-concept study proves the actual utility of miRNAs as biomarkers of mycotoxin exposure, including OTA.

Hippophae rhamnoides polysaccharides protect IPEC-J2 cells from LPS-induced inflammation, apoptosis and barrier dysfunction in vitro via inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Inflammatory response caused by early weaning stress in piglets is associated with various diseases. The Hippophae rhamnoides polysaccharide (HRP) exhibits anti-inflammatory activity and immunomodulatory properties. The mechanisms for the protective effects of HRP on barrier function, inflammatory damage and apoptosis in intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) induced by the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) are unknown. In this study, we first demonstrated the cytotoxicity of HRP-induced IPEC-J2 cells by reducing cell viability. IPEC-J2 cells were treated with 0-800 μg/mL doses of HRP, and 0-600 μg/mL doses were used in further experiments. Upon exposure to LPS, the viability of IPEC-J2 cells, ROS production, immunoglobulin levels (immunoglobulin M (IgM), immunoglobulin A (IgA) and immunoglobulin G (IgG)) and tight junction protein level (zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), occluding, claudin-1) decreased. Inflammatory factors (interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)) and apoptosis (Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3, caspase-8 and caspase-9) were increased. Cell morphology and internal structure were damaged in the LPS treatment. Pre-treating cells with HRP (0-600 μg/mL) reduced inflammatory factors levels, apoptosis rate, increased immunoglobulins, tight junction protein levels and relieved cell surface morphology damage. Pre-treatment with HRP also reduced the levels of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) and inhibited the phosphorylated NF-κB factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in cells induced by LPS. These results show that pre-treatment with HRP protected against LPS-induced IPEC-J2 cell damage through its anti-inflammatory activity.

Role of Key Micronutrients from Nutrigenetic and Nutrigenomic Perspectives in Cancer Prevention

Regarding cancer as a genetic multi-factorial disease, a number of aspects need to be investigated and analyzed in terms of cancer's predisposition, development and prognosis. One of these multi-dimensional factors, which has gained increased attention in the oncological field due to its unelucidated role in risk assessment for cancer, is diet. Moreover, as studies advance, a clearer connection between diet and the molecular alteration of patients is becoming identifiable and quantifiable, thereby replacing the old general view associating specific phenotypical changes with the differential intake of nutrients. Respectively, there are two major fields concentrated on the interrelation between genome and diet: nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics. Nutrigenetics studies the effects of nutrition at the gene level, whereas nutrigenomics studies the effect of nutrients on genome and transcriptome patterns. By precisely evaluating the interaction between the genomic profile of patients and their nutrient intake, it is possible to envision a concept of personalized medicine encompassing nutrition and health care. The list of nutrients that could have an inhibitory effect on cancer development is quite extensive, with evidence in the scientific literature. The administration of these nutrients showed significant results in vitro and in vivo regarding cancer inhibition, although more studies regarding administration in effective doses in actual patients need to be done.

The Relevance of Mass Spectrometry Analysis for Personalized Medicine through Its Successful Application in Cancer "Omics"

Mass spectrometry (MS) is an essential analytical technology on which the emerging omics domains; such as genomics; transcriptomics; proteomics and metabolomics; are based. This quantifiable technique allows for the identification of thousands of proteins from cell culture; bodily fluids or tissue using either global or targeted strategies; or detection of biologically active metabolites in ultra amounts. The routine performance of MS technology in the oncological field provides a better understanding of human diseases in terms of pathophysiology; prevention; diagnosis and treatment; as well as development of new biomarkers; drugs targets and therapies. In this review; we argue that the recent; successful advances in MS technologies towards cancer omics studies provides a strong rationale for its implementation in biomedicine as a whole.

Nontoxic concentrations of OTA aggravate DON-induced intestinal barrier dysfunction in IPEC-J2 cells via activation of NF-κB signaling pathway

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is well-known enteropathogenic mycotoxin which can alter intestinal barrier functions. Consistently, Ochratoxin A (OTA) ingestion has been found to induce intestinal injuries, including inflammation and diarrhea. However, little is known whether OTA aggravates DON-induced toxicity. This study is designed to explore the effects of OTA on DON-induced intestinal barrier function and involved mechanism. Our results showed either DON or OTA could disrupt intestinal barrier function in a time- and dose-dependent manner, as demonstrated by decreased transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and increased paracellular permeability to 4 kDa dextran. However, to eliminate the involvement of cell death, nonlethal concentrations of DON and OTA were used in following experiments. The nontoxic concentration of OTA was observed to aggravate DON-induced intestinal barrier dysfunction, accompanied with tight junction disruption (Claudin-3 and Claudin-4). Moreover, nontoxic concentrations of OTA aggravated DON-induced up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines expression and activated nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in IPEC-J2 cells. Adding NF-κB inhibitor (PDTC) alleviated the aggravating effects of nontoxic concentrations of OTA on DON-induced intestinal barrier dysfunction and inflammation. These findings indicate that nontoxic concentrations of OTA promoted DON-induced barrier dysfunction via NF-κB signaling pathway. Our experiment suggests that exposure to nontoxic concentrations of toxins also poses potentially harmful effects.

Protective Effect of N-Acetylcysteine against Oxidative Stress Induced by Zearalenone via Mitochondrial Apoptosis Pathway in SIEC02 Cells

Zearalenone (ZEN), a nonsteroidal estrogen mycotoxin, is widely found in feed and foodstuffs. Intestinal cells may become the primary target of toxin attack after ingesting food containing ZEN. Porcine small intestinal epithelial (SIEC02) cells were selected to assess the effect of ZEN exposure on the intestine. Cells were exposed to ZEN (20 µg/mL) or pretreated with (81, 162, and 324 µg/mL) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) prior to ZEN treatment. Results indicated that the activities of glutathione peroxidase (Gpx) and glutathione reductase (GR) were reduced by ZEN, which induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) production. Moreover, these activities increased apoptosis and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and regulated the messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3, caspase-9, and cytochrome c (cyto c). Additionally, NAC pretreatment reduced the oxidative damage and inhibited the apoptosis induced by ZEN. It can be concluded that ZEN-induced oxidative stress and damage may further induce mitochondrial apoptosis, and pretreatment of NAC can degrade this damage to some extent.

Ochratoxin A-Induced Apoptosis of IPEC-J2 Cells through ROS-Mediated Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore Opening Pathway

With the purpose to explore the mechanisms associated with the intestinal toxicity of Ochratoxin A (OTA), an intestinal porcine epithelial cell line (IPEC-J2) was applied in this study as in vitro models for intestinal epithelium. The results confirmed that OTA induced IPEC-J2 cell toxicity by MTT assay and apoptosis by Hoechst 33258 staining and flow cytometer analysis. We also observed that OTA induced the mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening by confocal microscopy. Western blot showed that OTA induced cytochrome c (cyt-c) release and caspase-3 activation, which could be suppressed by inhibition of mPTP opening with cyclosporin A. Treatment with Mito-TEMPO, the mitochondria-targeted ROS scavenger, blocked OTA-induced mitochondrial ROS generation and mPTP opening and prevented cyt-c release, caspase-3 activation, and apoptosis in IPEC-J2 cells.

Abdominal Wall Reconstruction after Flap Surgery and the Effect on the Immune System

BACKGROUND

The aim of our study was to investigate the impact of abdominal wall reconstruction surgery on tissue anatomy and to explore how flap surgery influences the patient's immune status.

METHODS

Experimental abdominal wall defects were created in 8 Sus scrofa (swine) animal models. The animals were divided into two groups: 4 swine were euthanized one month after surgery for the biopsies retrieval purpose and the other 4 swine were kept alive and the collection of blood samples has been done 6 months after surgery. In order to evaluate the relative gene expression in operated-on animal cohorts we compared them with samples from 4 healthy swine used as controls.

RESULTS

The inflammatory process was present in all types of repairs. Collagen I deposition was higher in the flap repairs. The expression level for the genes related to immune response after 6 months from surgery was relatively similar to the control group except minor alteration registered in the case of two swine models.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate a less pronounced proinflammatory response to surgical trauma in animal models after flap surgery. The postoperative levels of the inflammatory cytokines did not show significant differences after abdominal wall reconstruction using flap surgery.