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Liao J, Cai D, Geng S, Lyu Z, Wu Y, Guo J, Li H. Transcriptome-based analysis reveals a crucial role of the 20E/HR3 pathway in the diapause of Pieris rapae. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 199:105787. [PMID: 38458687 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2024.105787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Pieris rapae is among the most damaging pests globally, and diapause makes it highly resistant to environmental stresses, playing a crucial role in the survival and reproduction of P. rapae while exacerbating the challenges of pest management and control. However, the mechanisms of its diapause regulation remain poorly understood. This research used RNA sequencing to profile the transcriptomes of three diapause phases (induction and preparation, initiation, maintenance) and synchronous nondiapause phases in P. rapae. During each comparison phase, 759, 1045, and 4721 genes were found to be differentially expressed. Among these, seven clock genes and seven pivotal hormone synthesis and metabolism genes were identified as having differential expression patterns in diapause type and nondiapause type. The weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) revealed the red and blue modules as pivotal for diapause initiation, while the grey module was identified to be crucial to diapause maintenance. Meanwhile, the hub genes HDAC11, METLL16D, Dyw-like, GST, and so on, were identified within these hub modules. Moreover, an ecdysone downstream nuclear receptor gene, HR3, was found to be a shared transcription factor across all three phases. RNA interference of HR3 resulted in delayed pupal development, indicating its involvement in regulating pupal dipause in P. rapae. The further hormone assays revealed that the 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) titer in diapause type pupae was lower than that in nondiapause type pupae, which exhibited a similar trend to HR3. When 20E was injected into diapause pupae, the HR3 expression levels were improved, and the pupal diapause were broken. These results indicate that the 20E/HR3 pathway is a critical pathway for the diapause regulation of P. rapae, and perturbing this pathway by ecdysone treatment or RNAi would result in the disruption of diapause. These findings provide initial insights into the molecular mechanisms of P. rapae diapause and suggest the potential use of ecdysone analogs and HR3 RNAi pesticides, which specifically target to diapause, as a means of pest control in P. rapae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Liao
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Dingxue Cai
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Shaolei Geng
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Zhaopeng Lyu
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Yaling Wu
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Jianjun Guo
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Haiyin Li
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China.
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Zheng L, Wang H, Lin J, Zhou Y, Xiao J, Li K. Population genomics provides insights into the genetic diversity and adaptation of the Pieris rapae in China. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0294521. [PMID: 37972203 PMCID: PMC10653512 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0294521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae), a major agricultural pest, has become one of the most abundant and destructive butterflies in the world. It is widely distributed in a large variety of climates and terrains of China due to its strong adaptability. To gain insight into the population genetic characteristics of P. rapae in China, we resequenced the genome of 51 individuals from 19 areas throughout China. Using population genomics approaches, a dense variant map of P. rapae was observed, indicating a high level of polymorphism that could result in adaptation to a changing environment. The feature of the genetic structure suggested considerable genetic admixture in different geographical groups. Additionally, our analyses suggest that physical barriers may have played a more important role than geographic distance in driving genetic differentiation. Population history showed the effective population size of P. rapae was greatly affected by global temperature changes, with mild periods (i.e., temperatures warmer than those during glaciation but not excessively hot) leading to an increase in population size. Furthermore, by comparing populations from south and north China, we have identified selected genes related to sensing temperature, growth, neuromodulation and immune response, which may reveal the genetic basis of adaptation to different environments. Our study is the first to illustrate the genetic signatures of P. rapae in China at the population genomic level, providing fundamental knowledge of the genetic diversity and adaptation of P. rapae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Zheng
- College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Songjiang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Huan Wang
- Department of Plant Science and Technology, Shanghai Vocational College of Agriculture and Forestry, Shanghai, China
| | - Junjie Lin
- College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Songjiang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuxun Zhou
- College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Songjiang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Junhua Xiao
- College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Songjiang District, Shanghai, China
| | - Kai Li
- College of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Donghua University, Songjiang District, Shanghai, China
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Wang Q, Dicke M, Haverkamp A. Sympatric Pieris butterfly species exhibit a high conservation of chemoreceptors. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1155405. [PMID: 37252192 PMCID: PMC10210156 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1155405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Sensory processes have often been argued to play a central role in the selection of ecological niches and in the formation of new species. Butterflies are among the best studied animal groups with regards to their evolutionary and behavioral ecology and thereby offer an attractive system to investigate the role of chemosensory genes in sympatric speciation. We focus on two Pieris butterflies with overlapping host-plant ranges: P. brassicae and P. rapae. Host-plant choice in lepidopterans is largely based on their olfactory and gustatory senses. Although the chemosensory responses of the two species have been well characterized at the behavioral and physiological levels, little is known about their chemoreceptor genes. Here, we compared the chemosensory genes of P. brassicae and P. rapae to investigate whether differences in these genes might have contributed to their evolutionary separation. We identified a total of 130 and 122 chemoreceptor genes in the P. brassicae genome and antennal transcriptome, respectively. Similarly, 133 and 124 chemoreceptors were identified in the P. rapae genome and antennal transcriptome. We found some chemoreceptors being differentially expressed in the antennal transcriptomes of the two species. The motifs and gene structures of chemoreceptors were compared between the two species. We show that paralogs share conserved motifs and orthologs have similar gene structures. Our study therefore found surprisingly few differences in the numbers, sequence identities and gene structures between the two species, indicating that the ecological differences between these two butterflies might be more related to a quantitative shift in the expression of orthologous genes than to the evolution of novel receptors as has been found in other insects. Our molecular data supplement the wealth of behavioral and ecological studies on these two species and will thereby help to better understand the role of chemoreceptor genes in the evolution of lepidopterans.
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Yang J, Guo H, Jiang NJ, Tang R, Li GC, Huang LQ, van Loon JJA, Wang CZ. Identification of a gustatory receptor tuned to sinigrin in the cabbage butterfly Pieris rapae. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009527. [PMID: 34264948 PMCID: PMC8282186 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucosinolates are token stimuli in host selection of many crucifer specialist
insects, but the underlying molecular basis for host selection in these insects
remains enigmatic. Using a combination of behavioral, electrophysiological, and
molecular methods, we investigate glucosinolate receptors in the cabbage
butterfly Pieris rapae. Sinigrin, as a potent feeding
stimulant, elicited activity in larval maxillary lateral sensilla styloconica,
as well as in adult medial tarsal sensilla. Two P.
rapae gustatory receptor genes PrapGr28
and PrapGr15 were identified with high expression in female
tarsi, and the subsequent functional analyses showed that
Xenopus oocytes only expressing PrapGr28
had specific responses to sinigrin; when ectopically expressed in
Drosophila sugar sensing neurons, PrapGr28 conferred
sinigrin sensitivity to these neurons. RNA interference experiments further
showed that knockdown of PrapGr28 reduced the sensitivity of
adult medial tarsal sensilla to sinigrin. Taken together, we conclude that
PrapGr28 is a gustatory receptor tuned to sinigrin in P.
rapae, which paves the way for revealing the molecular
basis of the relationships between crucifer plants and their specialist
insects. Preference of crucifer specialist insects to glucosinolates is well known in the
field of insect-plant interactions, but its molecular basis is unclear. This
study uses an integrative approach to investigate the molecular basis of
glucosinolate detection by gustatory receptor neurons in the larval mouthparts
and adult forelegs of the cabbage butterfly Pieris rapae, and
finally reveal that PrapGr28 is a bitter receptor tuned to sinigrin. The current
work takes a significant step towards identifying gustatory receptors tuned to
glucosinolates, crucial recognition signals in crucifer host plants, providing
insights into co-evolution of herbivorous insects and their host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and
Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,
China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hao Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and
Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,
China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Nan-Ji Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and
Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,
China
| | - Rui Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and
Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,
China
| | - Guo-Cheng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and
Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,
China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ling-Qiao Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and
Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,
China
| | - Joop J. A. van Loon
- Laboratory of Entomology, Plant Sciences Group, Wageningen University and
Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Chen-Zhu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and
Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,
China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- * E-mail:
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Kumar P, Akhter T, Bhardwaj P, Kumar R, Bhardwaj U, Mazumdar-Leighton S. Consequences of 'no-choice, fixed time' reciprocal host plant switches on nutrition and gut serine protease gene expression in Pieris brassicae L. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). PLoS One 2021; 16:e0245649. [PMID: 33471847 PMCID: PMC7817030 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid adaptive responses were evident from reciprocal host-plant switches on performance, digestive physiology and relative gene expression of gut serine proteases in larvae of crucifer pest P. brassicae transferred from cauliflower (CF, Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, family Brassicaceae) to an alternate host, garden nasturtium, (GN, Tropaeolum majus L., family Tropaeolaceae) and vice-versa under laboratory conditions. Estimation of nutritional indices indicated that larvae of all instars tested consumed the least food and gained less weight on CF-GN diet (significant at p≤0.05) as compared to larvae feeding on CF-CF, GN-GN and GN-CF diets suggesting that the switch to GN was nutritionally less favorable for larval growth. Nevertheless, these larvae, especially fourth instars, were adroit in utilizing and digesting GN as a new host plant type. In vitro protease assays conducted to understand associated physiological responses within twelve hours indicated that levels and properties of gut proteases were significantly influenced by type of natal host-plant consumed, change in diet as well as larval age. Activities of gut trypsins and chymotrypsins in larvae feeding on CF-GN and GN-CF diets were distinct, and represented shifts toward profiles observed in larvae feeding continuously on GN-GN and CF-CF diets respectively. Results with diagnostic protease inhibitors like TLCK, STI and SBBI in these assays and gelatinolytic zymograms indicated complex and contrasting trends in gut serine protease activities in different instars from CF-GN diet versus GN-CF diet, likely due to ingestion of plant protease inhibitors present in the new diet. Cloning and sequencing of serine protease gene fragments expressed in gut tissues of fourth instar P. brassicae revealed diverse transcripts encoding putative trypsins and chymotrypsins belonging to at least ten lineages. Sequences of members of each lineage closely resembled lepidopteran serine protease orthologs including uncharacterized transcripts from Pieris rapae. Differential regulation of serine protease genes (Pbr1-Pbr5) was observed in larval guts of P. brassicae from CF-CF and GN-GN diets while expression of transcripts encoding two putative trypsins (Pbr3 and Pbr5) were significantly different in larvae from CF-GN and GN-CF diets. These results suggested that some gut serine proteases that were differentially expressed in larvae feeding on different species of host plants were also involved in rapid adaptations to dietary switches. A gene encoding nitrile-specifier protein (nsp) likely involved in detoxification of toxic products from interactions of ingested host plant glucosinolates with myrosinases was expressed to similar levels in these larvae. Taken together, these snapshots reflected contrasts in physiological and developmental plasticity of P. brassicae larvae to nutritional challenges from wide dietary switches in the short term and the prominent role of gut serine proteases in rapid dietary adaptations. This study may be useful in designing novel management strategies targeting candidate gut serine proteases of P. brassicae using RNA interference, gene editing or crops with transgenes encoding protease inhibitors from taxonomically-distant host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawan Kumar
- Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Tabasum Akhter
- Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Parul Bhardwaj
- Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Rakesh Kumar
- Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Usha Bhardwaj
- Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
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6
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Kobiela ME, Snell-Rood EC. Genetic Variation Influences Tolerance to a Neonicotinoid Insecticide in 3 Butterfly Species. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2020; 39:2228-2236. [PMID: 32776572 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Neonicotinoid pesticides harm nontarget insects, but their sublethal effects on butterflies are understudied. We exposed larvae of 3 butterfly species (Pieris rapae, Colias philodice, and Danaus plexippus) to low levels of the neonicotinoid imidacloprid in their host plants and followed individuals to adulthood. Imidacloprid altered adult body size, especially in female monarchs, but its effects varied across maternal families, highlighting the importance of considering genetic variation in ecotoxicological testing. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:2228-2236. © 2020 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E Kobiela
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Emilie C Snell-Rood
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA
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7
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Sikkink KL, Hostager R, Kobiela ME, Fremling N, Johnston K, Zambre A, Snell-Rood EC. Tolerance of Novel Toxins through Generalized Mechanisms: Simulating Gradual Host Shifts of Butterflies. Am Nat 2020; 195:485-503. [PMID: 32097036 DOI: 10.1086/707195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Organisms encounter a wide range of toxic compounds in their environments, from chemicals that serve anticonsumption or anticompetition functions to pollutants and pesticides. Although we understand many detoxification mechanisms that allow organisms to consume toxins typical of their diet, we know little about why organisms vary in their ability to tolerate entirely novel toxins. We tested whether variation in generalized stress responses, such as antioxidant pathways, may underlie variation in reactions to novel toxins and, if so, their associated costs. We used an artificial diet to present cabbage white butterfly caterpillars (Pieris rapae) with plant material containing toxins not experienced in their evolutionary history. Families that maintained high performance (e.g., high survival, fast development time, large body size) on diets containing one novel toxic plant also performed well when exposed to two other novel toxic plants, consistent with a generalized response. Variation in constitutive (but not induced) expression of genes involved in oxidative stress responses was positively related to performance on the novel diets. While we did not detect reproductive trade-offs of this generalized response, there was a tendency to have less melanin investment in the wings, consistent with the role of melanin in oxidative stress responses. Taken together, our results support the hypothesis that variation in generalized stress responses, such as genes involved in oxidative stress responses, may explain the variation in tolerance to entirely novel toxins and may facilitate colonization of novel hosts and environments.
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8
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Gene Expression and Diet Breadth in Plant-Feeding Insects: Summarizing Trends. Trends Ecol Evol 2019; 35:259-277. [PMID: 31791830 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2019.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Transcriptomic studies lend insights into the role of transcriptional plasticity in adaptation and specialization. Recently, there has been growing interest in understanding the relationship between variation in herbivorous insect gene expression and the evolution of diet breadth. We review the studies that have emerged on insect gene expression and host plant use, and outline the questions and approaches in the field. Many candidate genes underlying herbivory and specialization have been identified, and a few key studies demonstrate increased transcriptional plasticity associated with generalist compared with specialist species. Addressing the roles that transcriptional variation plays in insect diet breadth will have important implications for our understanding of the evolution of specialization and the genetic and environmental factors that govern insect-plant interactions.
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9
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Mapping and identification of potential target genes from short-RNA seq for the control of Pieris rapae larvae. Genomics 2019; 112:1464-1476. [PMID: 31450005 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2019.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2019] [Revised: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Pieris rapae is a serious pest of brassicas worldwide. We performed de novo assembly of P. rapae transcriptome by next-generation sequencing and assembled approximately 65,727,422 clean paired-end reads into 32,118 unigenes, of which 13,585 were mapped to 255 pathways in the KEGG database. A total of 6173 novel transcripts were identified from reads directly mapped to P. rapae genome. Additionally, 1490 SSRs, 301,377 SNPs, and 29,284 InDels were identified as potential molecular markers to explore polymorphism within P. rapae populations. We screened and mapped 36 transcripts related to OBP, CSP, SNMP, PBAN, and OR. We analyzed the expression profiles of 7 selected genes involved in pheromone transport and degradation by quantitative real-time PCR; these genes are sex-specific and differentially expressed in the developmental stages. Overall, the comprehensive transcriptome resources described in this study could help understand and identify molecular targets particularly reproduction-related genes for developing effective P. rapae management tools.
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10
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Espeset A, Kobiela ME, Sikkink KL, Pan T, Roy C, Snell-Rood EC. Anthropogenic increases in nutrients alter sexual selection dynamics: a case study in butterflies. Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anne Espeset
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV, USA
| | - Megan E Kobiela
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
| | - Kristin L Sikkink
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
| | - Tiffany Pan
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
| | - Colton Roy
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
| | - Emilie C Snell-Rood
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
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11
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Braak N, Neve R, Jones AK, Gibbs M, Breuker CJ. The effects of insecticides on butterflies - A review. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2018; 242:507-518. [PMID: 30005263 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.06.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Pesticides, in particular insecticides, can be very beneficial but have also been found to have harmful side effects on non-target insects. Butterflies play an important role in ecosystems, are well monitored and are recognised as good indicators of environmental health. The amount of information already known about butterfly ecology and the increased availability of genomes make them a very valuable model for the study of non-target effects of pesticide usage. The effects of pesticides are not simply linear, but complex through their interactions with a large variety of biotic and abiotic factors. Furthermore, these effects manifest themselves at a variety of levels, from the molecular to metapopulation level. Research should therefore aim to dissect these complex effects at a number of levels, but as we discuss in this review, this is seldom if ever done in butterflies. We suggest that in order dissect the complex effects of pesticides on butterflies we need to integrate detailed molecular studies, including characterising sequence variability of relevant target genes, with more classical evolutionary ecology; from direct toxicity tests on individual larvae in the laboratory to field studies that consider the potentiation of pesticides by ecologically relevant environmental biotic and abiotic stressors. Such integration would better inform population-level responses across broad geographical scales and provide more in-depth information about the non-target impacts of pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Braak
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Headington, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Rebecca Neve
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Headington, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Andrew K Jones
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Headington, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Melanie Gibbs
- NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Maclean Building, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, OX10 8BB, UK
| | - Casper J Breuker
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Headington, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK.
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