A comprehensive study on cellular RNA editing activity in response to infections with different subtypes of influenza a viruses

Human long noncoding RNA, VILMIR, is induced by major respiratory viral infections and modulates the host interferon response

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a newer class of noncoding transcripts identified as key regulators of biological processes. Here we aimed to identify novel lncRNA targets that play critical roles in major human respiratory viral infections by systematically mining large-scale transcriptomic datasets. Using bulk RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis, we identified a previously uncharacterized lncRNA, named virus inducible lncRNA modulator of interferon response (VILMIR), that was consistently upregulated after in vitro influenza infection across multiple human epithelial cell lines and influenza A virus subtypes. VILMIR was also upregulated after SARS-CoV-2 and RSV infections in vitro. We experimentally confirmed the response of VILMIR to influenza infection and interferon-beta (IFN-β) treatment in the A549 human epithelial cell line and found the expression of VILMIR was robustly induced by IFN-β treatment in a dose and time-specific manner. Single cell RNA-seq analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) samples from COVID-19 patients uncovered that VILMIR was upregulated across various cell types including at least five immune cells. The upregulation of VILMIR in immune cells was further confirmed in the human T cell and monocyte cell lines, SUP-T1 and THP-1, after IFN-β treatment. Finally, we found that knockdown of VILMIR expression reduced the magnitude of host transcriptional responses to IFN-β treatment in A549 cells. Together, our results show that VILMIR is a novel interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) that regulates the host interferon response and may be a potential therapeutic target for human respiratory viral infections upon further mechanistic investigation.

Changes in ADAR RNA editing patterns in CMV and ZIKV congenital infections

BACKGROUND

RNA editing is a process that increases transcriptome diversity, often through Adenosine Deaminases Acting on RNA (ADARs) that catalyze the deamination of adenosine to inosine. ADAR editing plays an important role in regulating brain function and immune activation, and is dynamically regulated during brain development. Additionally, the ADAR1 p150 isoform is induced by interferons in viral infection and plays a role in antiviral immune response. However, the question of how virus-induced ADAR expression affects host transcriptome editing remains largely unanswered. This question is particularly relevant in the context of congenital infections, given the dynamic regulation of ADAR editing during brain development, the importance of this editing for brain function, and subsequent neurological symptoms of such infections, including microcephaly, sensory issues, and other neurodevelopmental abnormalities. Here, we begin to address this question, examining ADAR expression in publicly available datasets of congenital infections of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) microarray expression data, as well as mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) and mouse/ human induced pluripotent neuroprogenitor stem cell (hiNPC) Zika virus (ZIKV) RNA-seq data.

RESULTS

We found that in all three datasets, ADAR1 was overexpressed in infected samples compared to uninfected samples. In the RNA-seq datasets, editing rates were also analyzed. In all mouse infections cases, the number of editing sites was significantly increased in infected samples, albeit this was not the case for hiNPC ZIKV samples. Mouse ZIKV samples showed altered editing of well-established protein-recoding sites such as Gria3, Grik5, and Nova1, as well as editing sites that may impact miRNA binding.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide evidence for changes in ADAR expression and subsequent dysregulation of ADAR editing of host transcriptomes in congenital infections. These changes in editing patterns of key neural genes have potential significance in the development of neurological symptoms, thus contributing to neurodevelopmental abnormalities. Further experiments should be performed to explore the full range of editing changes that occur in different congenital infections, and to confirm the specific functional consequences of these editing changes.

The regulation of antiviral innate immunity through non-m6A RNA modifications

The post-transcriptional RNA modifications impact the dynamic regulation of gene expression in diverse biological and physiological processes. Host RNA modifications play an indispensable role in regulating innate immune responses against virus infection in mammals. Meanwhile, the viral RNAs can be deposited with RNA modifications to interfere with the host immune responses. The N6-methyladenosine (m6A) has boosted the recent emergence of RNA epigenetics, due to its high abundance and a transcriptome-wide widespread distribution in mammalian cells, proven to impact antiviral innate immunity. However, the other types of RNA modifications are also involved in regulating antiviral responses, and the functional roles of these non-m6A RNA modifications have not been comprehensively summarized. In this Review, we conclude the regulatory roles of 2'-O-methylation (Nm), 5-methylcytidine (m5C), adenosine-inosine editing (A-to-I editing), pseudouridine (Ψ), N1-methyladenosine (m1A), N7-methylguanosine (m7G), N6,2'-O-dimethyladenosine (m6Am), and N4-acetylcytidine (ac4C) in antiviral innate immunity. We provide a systematic introduction to the biogenesis and functions of these non-m6A RNA modifications in viral RNA, host RNA, and during virus-host interactions, emphasizing the biological functions of RNA modification regulators in antiviral responses. Furthermore, we discussed the recent research progress in the development of antiviral drugs through non-m6A RNA modifications. Collectively, this Review conveys knowledge and inspiration to researchers in multiple disciplines, highlighting the challenges and future directions in RNA epitranscriptome, immunology, and virology.

Host A-to-I RNA editing signatures in intracellular bacterial and single-strand RNA viral infections

Background

Microbial infection is accompanied by remodeling of the host transcriptome. Involvement of A-to-I RNA editing has been reported during viral infection but remains to be elucidated during intracellular bacterial infections.

Results

Herein we analyzed A-to-I RNA editing during intracellular bacterial infections based on 18 RNA-Seq datasets of 210 mouse samples involving 7 tissue types and 8 intracellular bacterial pathogens (IBPs), and identified a consensus signature of RNA editing for IBP infections, mainly involving neutrophil-mediated innate immunity and lipid metabolism. Further comparison of host RNA editing patterns revealed remarkable similarities between pneumonia caused by IBPs and single-strand RNA (ssRNA) viruses, such as altered editing enzyme expression, editing site numbers, and levels. In addition, functional enrichment analysis of genes with RNA editing highlighted that the Rab GTPase family played a common and vital role in the host immune response to IBP and ssRNA viral infections, which was indicated by the consistent up-regulated RNA editing of Ras-related protein Rab27a. Nevertheless, dramatic differences between IBP and viral infections were also observed, and clearly distinguished the two types of intracellular infections.

Conclusion

Our study showed transcriptome-wide host A-to-I RNA editing alteration during IBP and ssRNA viral infections. By identifying and comparing consensus signatures of host A-to-I RNA editing, our analysis implicates the importance of host A-to-I RNA editing during these infections and provides new insights into the diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases.

Peering into Avian Influenza A(H5N8) for a Framework towards Pandemic Preparedness

2014 marked the first emergence of avian influenza A(H5N8) in Jeonbuk Province, South Korea, which then quickly spread worldwide. In the midst of the 2020-2021 H5N8 outbreak, it spread to domestic poultry and wild waterfowl shorebirds, leading to the first human infection in Astrakhan Oblast, Russia. Despite being clinically asymptomatic and without direct human-to-human transmission, the World Health Organization stressed the need for continued risk assessment given the nature of Influenza to reassort and generate novel strains. Given its promiscuity and easy cross to humans, the urgency to understand the mechanisms of possible species jumping to avert disastrous pandemics is increasing. Addressing the epidemiology of H5N8, its mechanisms of species jumping and its implications, mutational and reassortment libraries can potentially be built, allowing them to be tested on various models complemented with deep-sequencing and automation. With knowledge on mutational patterns, cellular pathways, drug resistance mechanisms and effects of host proteins, we can be better prepared against H5N8 and other influenza A viruses.

ADAR Editing in Viruses: An Evolutionary Force to Reckon with

Adenosine Deaminases that Act on RNA (ADARs) are RNA editing enzymes that play a dynamic and nuanced role in regulating transcriptome and proteome diversity. This editing can be highly selective, affecting a specific site within a transcript, or nonselective, resulting in hyperediting. ADAR editing is important for regulating neural functions and autoimmunity, and has a key role in the innate immune response to viral infections, where editing can have a range of pro- or antiviral effects and can contribute to viral evolution. Here we examine the role of ADAR editing across a broad range of viral groups. We propose that the effect of ADAR editing on viral replication, whether pro- or antiviral, is better viewed as an axis rather than a binary, and that the specific position of a given virus on this axis is highly dependent on virus- and host-specific factors, and can change over the course of infection. However, more research needs to be devoted to understanding these dynamic factors and how they affect virus-ADAR interactions and viral evolution. Another area that warrants significant attention is the effect of virus-ADAR interactions on host-ADAR interactions, particularly in light of the crucial role of ADAR in regulating neural functions. Answering these questions will be essential to developing our understanding of the relationship between ADAR editing and viral infection. In turn, this will further our understanding of the effects of viruses such as SARS-CoV-2, as well as many others, and thereby influence our approach to treating these deadly diseases.

Molecular Evolution of the Influenza A Virus Non-structural Protein 1 in Interspecies Transmission and Adaptation

The non-structural protein 1 (NS1) of influenza A viruses plays important roles in viral fitness and in the process of interspecies adaptation. It is one of the most polymorphic and mutation-tolerant proteins of the influenza A genome, but its evolutionary patterns in different host species and the selective pressures that underlie them are hard to define. In this review, we highlight some of the species-specific molecular signatures apparent in different NS1 proteins and discuss two functions of NS1 in the process of viral adaptation to new host species. First, we consider the ability of NS1 proteins to broadly suppress host protein expression through interaction with CPSF4. This NS1 function can be spontaneously lost and regained through mutation and must be balanced against the need for host co-factors to aid efficient viral replication. Evidence suggests that this function of NS1 may be selectively lost in the initial stages of viral adaptation to some new host species. Second, we explore the ability of NS1 proteins to inhibit antiviral interferon signaling, an essential function for viral replication without which the virus is severely attenuated in any host. Innate immune suppression by NS1 not only enables viral replication in tissues, but also dampens the adaptive immune response and immunological memory. NS1 proteins suppress interferon signaling and effector functions through a variety of protein-protein interactions that may differ from host to host but must achieve similar goals. The multifunctional influenza A virus NS1 protein is highly plastic, highly versatile, and demonstrates a diversity of context-dependent solutions to the problem of interspecies adaptation.

Assessment of TLR3 and MDA5-Mediated Immune Responses Using Knockout Quail Fibroblast Cells

Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5) are double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-recognizing receptors that mediate innate immune responses to virus infection. However, the roles played by these receptors in the pathogenesis of avian viruses are poorly understood. In this study, we generated TLR3 and MDA5 single knockout (SKO) and TLR3-MDA5 double knockout (DKO) quail fibroblast cells and examined dsRNA receptor-mediated innate immune responses in vitro. The knockout cells were then stimulated with a synthetic dsRNA ligand polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)] or influenza A virus. Endosomal stimulation of TLR3 by adding poly(I:C) in cell culture media or cytoplasmic stimulation of MDA5 by transfecting poly(I:C) resulted in significant increases of TLR3, MDA5, interferon (IFN) β, and interleukin 8 gene expression levels in wild type (WT) cells. Endosomal poly(I:C) treatment induced a higher level expression of most of the genes tested in MDA5 SKO cells compared with WT cells, but not in TLR3 SKO and DKO cells. Cytoplasmic transfection of poly(I:C) led to significant upregulation of all four genes in WT, TLR3 SKO, and MDA5 SKO cells at 8 hr posttransfection and negligible gene expression changes in TLR3-MDA5 DKO cells. Upon infection with a strain of influenza virus with compromised IFN antagonistic capability, WT cells produced the highest amount of biologically active type I IFN followed by TLR3 SKO and MDA5 SKO cells. DKO cells did not produce detectable amounts of type I IFN. However, the IFN did not induce an antiviral state fast enough to block virus replication, even in WT cells under the experimental conditions employed. In summary, our data demonstrate that TLR3 and MDA5 are the key functional dsRNA receptors in quail and imply their coordinated roles in the induction of innate immune responses upon virus infection.

Adenosine Deaminases Acting on RNA (ADARs) and Viral Infections

C6 deamination of adenosine (A) to inosine (I) in double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is catalyzed by a family of enzymes known as ADARs (adenosine deaminases acting on RNA) encoded by three genes in mammals. Alternative promoters and splicing produce two ADAR1 proteins, an interferon-inducible cytoplasmic p150 and a constitutively expressed p110 that like ADAR2 is a nuclear enzyme. ADAR3 lacks deaminase activity. A-to-I editing occurs with both viral and cellular RNAs. Deamination activity is dependent on dsRNA substrate structure and regulatory RNA-binding proteins and ranges from highly site selective with hepatitis D RNA and glutamate receptor precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) to hyperediting of measles virus and polyomavirus transcripts and cellular inverted Alu elements. Because I base-pairs as guanosine instead of A, editing can alter mRNA decoding, pre-mRNA splicing, and microRNA silencing. Editing also alters dsRNA structure, thereby suppressing innate immune responses including interferon production and action. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Virology, Volume 8 is September 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

The Role of APOBECs in Viral Replication

Apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like (APOBEC) proteins are a diverse and evolutionarily conserved family of cytidine deaminases that provide a variety of functions from tissue-specific gene expression and immunoglobulin diversity to control of viruses and retrotransposons. APOBEC family expansion has been documented among mammalian species, suggesting a powerful selection for their activity. Enzymes with a duplicated zinc-binding domain often have catalytically active and inactive domains, yet both have antiviral function. Although APOBEC antiviral function was discovered through hypermutation of HIV-1 genomes lacking an active Vif protein, much evidence indicates that APOBECs also inhibit virus replication through mechanisms other than mutagenesis. Multiple steps of the viral replication cycle may be affected, although nucleic acid replication is a primary target. Packaging of APOBECs into virions was first noted with HIV-1, yet is not a prerequisite for viral inhibition. APOBEC antagonism may occur in viral producer and recipient cells. Signatures of APOBEC activity include G-to-A and C-to-T mutations in a particular sequence context. The importance of APOBEC activity for viral inhibition is reflected in the identification of numerous viral factors, including HIV-1 Vif, which are dedicated to antagonism of these deaminases. Such viral antagonists often are only partially successful, leading to APOBEC selection for viral variants that enhance replication or avoid immune elimination.

Comparison of detection rate of 16 sampling methods for respiratory viruses: a Bayesian network meta-analysis of clinical data and systematic review

BACKGROUND

Respiratory viruses (RVs) is a common cause of illness in people of all ages, at present, different types of sampling methods are available for respiratory viral diagnosis. However, the diversity of available sampling methods and the limited direct comparisons in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) make decision-making difficult. We did a network meta-analysis, which accounted for both direct and indirect comparisons, to determine the detection rate of different sampling methods for RVs.

METHODS

Relevant articles were retrieved comprehensively by searching the online databases of PubMed, Embase and Cochrane published before 25 March 2020. With the help of R V.3.6.3 software and 'GeMTC V.0.8.2' package, network meta-analysis was performed within a Bayesian framework. Node-splitting method and I ² test combined leverage graphs and Gelman-Rubin-Brooks plots were conducted to evaluate the model's accuracy. The rank probabilities in direct and cumulative rank plots were also incorporated to rank the corresponding sampling methods for overall and specific virus.

RESULTS

16 sampling methods with 54 438 samples from 57 literatures were ultimately involved in this study. The model indicated good consistency and convergence but high heterogeneity, hence, random-effect analysis was applied. The top three sampling methods for RVs were nasopharyngeal wash (NPW), mid-turbinate swab (MTS) and nasopharyngeal swab (NPS). Despite certain differences, the results of virus-specific subanalysis were basically consistent with RVs: MTS, NPW and NPS for influenza; MTS, NPS and NPW for influenza-a and b; saliva, NPW and NPS for rhinovirus and parainfluenza; NPW, MTS and nasopharyngeal aspirate for respiratory syncytial virus; saliva, NPW and MTS for adenovirus and sputum; MTS and NPS for coronavirus.

CONCLUSION

This network meta-analysis provides supporting evidences that NPW, MTS and NPS have higher diagnostic value regarding RVs infection, moreover, particular preferred methods should be considered in terms of specific virus pandemic. Of course, subsequent RCTs with larger samples are required to validate our findings.

Threading the Pieces Together: Integrative Perspective on SARS-CoV-2

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has challenged the research community globally to innovate, interact, and integrate findings across hierarchies. Research on SARS-CoV-2 has produced an abundance of data spanning multiple parallels, including clinical data, SARS-CoV-2 genome architecture, host response captured through transcriptome and genetic variants, microbial co-infections (metagenome), and comorbidities. Disease phenotypes in the case of COVID-19 present an intriguing complexity that includes a broad range of symptomatic to asymptomatic individuals, further compounded by a vast heterogeneity within the spectrum of clinical symptoms displayed by the symptomatic individuals. The clinical outcome is further modulated by the presence of comorbid conditions at the point of infection. The COVID-19 pandemic has produced an expansive wealth of literature touching many aspects of SARS-CoV-2 ranging from causal to outcome, predisposition to protective (possible), co-infection to comorbidity, and differential mortality globally. As challenges provide opportunities, the current pandemic's challenge has underscored the need and opportunity to work for an integrative approach that may be able to thread together the multiple variables. Through this review, we have made an effort towards bringing together information spanning across different domains to facilitate researchers globally in pursuit of their response to SARS-CoV-2.

Avian Toll-like receptor 3 isoforms and evaluation of Toll-like receptor 3-mediated immune responses using knockout quail fibroblast cells

Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) induces host innate immune response on recognition of viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). Although several studies of avian TLR3 have been reported, none of these studies used a gene knockout (KO) model to directly assess its role in inducing the immune response and effect on other dsRNA receptors. In this study, we determined the coding sequence of quail TLR3, identified isoforms, and generated TLR3 KO quail fibroblast (QT-35) cells using a CRISPR/Cas9 system optimized for avian species. The TLR3-mediated immune response was studied by stimulating the wild-type (WT) and KO QT-35 cells with synthetic dsRNA or polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)] or infecting the cells with different RNA viruses such as influenza A virus, avian reovirus, and vesicular stomatitis virus. The direct poly(I:C) treatment significantly increased IFN-β and IL-8 gene expression along with the cytoplasmic dsRNA receptor, melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5), in WT cells, whereas no changes in all corresponding genes were observed in KO cells. We further confirmed the antiviral effects of poly(I:C)-induced TLR3-mediated immunity by demonstrating significant reduction of virus titer in poly(I:C)-treated WT cells, but not in TLR3 KO cells. On virus infection, varying levels of IFN-β, IL-8, TLR3, and MDA5 gene upregulation were observed depending on the viruses. No major differences in gene expression level were observed between WT and TLR3 KO cells, which suggests a relatively minor role of TLR3 in sensing and exerting immune response against the viruses tested in vitro. Our data show that quail TLR3 is an important endosomal dsRNA receptor responsible for regulation of type I interferon and proinflammatory cytokine, and affect the expression of MDA5, another dsRNA receptor, most likely through cytokine-mediated communication.

Bioinformatics approaches for deciphering the epitranscriptome: Recent progress and emerging topics

Post-transcriptional RNA modification occurs on all types of RNA and plays a vital role in regulating every aspect of RNA function. Thanks to the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies, transcriptome-wide profiling of RNA modifications has been made possible. With the accumulation of a large number of high-throughput datasets, bioinformatics approaches have become increasing critical for unraveling the epitranscriptome. We review here the recent progress in bioinformatics approaches for deciphering the epitranscriptomes, including epitranscriptome data analysis techniques, RNA modification databases, disease-association inference, general functional annotation, and studies on RNA modification site prediction. We also discuss the limitations of existing approaches and offer some future perspectives.

A-to-I editing of Malacoherpesviridae RNAs supports the antiviral role of ADAR1 in mollusks

Background

Adenosine deaminase enzymes of the ADAR family are conserved in metazoans. They convert adenine into inosine in dsRNAs and thus alter both structural properties and the coding potential of their substrates. Acting on exogenous dsRNAs, ADAR1 exerts a pro- or anti-viral role in vertebrates and Drosophila.

Results

We traced 4 ADAR homologs in 14 lophotrochozoan genomes and we classified them into ADAD, ADAR1 or ADAR2, based on phylogenetic and structural analyses of the enzymatic domain. Using RNA-seq and quantitative real time PCR we demonstrated the upregulation of one ADAR1 homolog in the bivalve Crassostrea gigas and in the gastropod Haliotis diversicolor supertexta during Ostreid herpesvirus-1 or Haliotid herpesvirus-1 infection. Accordingly, we demonstrated an extensive ADAR-mediated editing of viral RNAs. Single nucleotide variation (SNV) profiles obtained by pairing RNA- and DNA-seq data from the viral infected individuals resulted to be mostly compatible with ADAR-mediated A-to-I editing (up to 97%). SNVs occurred at low frequency in genomic hotspots, denoted by the overlapping of viral genes encoded on opposite DNA strands. The SNV sites and their upstream neighbor nucleotide indicated the targeting of selected adenosines. The analysis of viral sequences suggested that, under the pressure of the ADAR editing, the two Malacoherpesviridae genomes have evolved to reduce the number of deamination targets.

Conclusions

We report, for the first time, evidence of an extensive editing of Malacoherpesviridae RNAs attributable to host ADAR1 enzymes. The analysis of base neighbor preferences, structural features and expression profiles of molluscan ADAR1 supports the conservation of the enzyme function among metazoans and further suggested that ADAR1 exerts an antiviral role in mollusks.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-019-1472-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A bioinformatics potpourri

The 16th International Conference on Bioinformatics (InCoB) was held at Tsinghua University, Shenzhen from September 20 to 22, 2017. The annual conference of the Asia-Pacific Bioinformatics Network featured six keynotes, two invited talks, a panel discussion on big data driven bioinformatics and precision medicine, and 66 oral presentations of accepted research articles or posters. Fifty-seven articles comprising a topic assortment of algorithms, biomolecular networks, cancer and disease informatics, drug-target interactions and drug efficacy, gene regulation and expression, imaging, immunoinformatics, metagenomics, next generation sequencing for genomics and transcriptomics, ontologies, post-translational modification, and structural bioinformatics are the subject of this editorial for the InCoB2017 supplement issues in BMC Genomics, BMC Bioinformatics, BMC Systems Biology and BMC Medical Genomics. New Delhi will be the location of InCoB2018, scheduled for September 26-28, 2018.

Differential responses of innate immunity triggered by different subtypes of influenza a viruses in human and avian hosts

BACKGROUND

Innate immunity provides first line of defense against viral infections. The interactions between hosts and influenza A virus and the response of host innate immunity to viral infection are critical determinants for the pathogenicity or virulence of influenza A viruses. This study was designed to investigate global changes of gene expression and detailed responses of innate immune systems in human and avian hosts during the course of infection with various subtypes of influenza A viruses, using collected and self-generated transcriptome sequencing data from human bronchial epithelial (HBE), human tracheobronchial epithelial (HTBE), and A549 cells infected with influenza A virus subtypes, namely H1N1, H3N2, H5N1 HALo mutant, and H7N9, and from ileum and lung of chicken and quail infected with H5N1, or H5N2.

RESULTS

We examined the induction of various cytokines and chemokines in human hosts infected with different subtypes of influenza A viruses. Type I and III interferons were found to be differentially induced with each subtype. H3N2 caused abrupt and the strongest response of IFN-β and IFN-λ, followed by H1N1 (though much weaker), whereas H5N1 HALo mutant and H7N9 induced very minor change in expression of type I and III interferons. Similarly, differential responses of other innate immunity-related genes were observed, including TMEM173, MX1, OASL, IFI6, IFITs, IFITMs, and various chemokine genes like CCL5, CX3CL1, and chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligands, SOCS (suppressors of cytokine signaling) genes. Third, the replication kinetics of H1N1, H3N2, H5N1 HALo mutant and H7N9 subtypes were analyzed, H5N1 HALo mutant was found to have the highest viral replication rate, followed by H3N2, and H1N1, while H7N9 had a rate similar to that of H1N1 or H3N2 though in different host cell type.

CONCLUSION

Our study illustrated the differential responses of innate immunity to infections of different subtypes of influenza A viruses. We found the influenza viruses which induced stronger innate immune responses replicate slower than those induces weaker innate immune responses. Our study provides important insight into links between the differential innate immune responses from hosts and the pathogenicity/ virulence of different subtypes of influenza A viruses.