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Chevalier C, Chica C, Matheau J, Pain A, Connor MG, Hamon MA. Epithelial cells maintain memory of prior infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae through di-methylation of histone H3. Nat Commun 2024; 15:5545. [PMID: 38956024 PMCID: PMC11219877 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49347-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cells are the first point of contact for bacteria entering the respiratory tract. Streptococcus pneumoniae is an obligate human pathobiont of the nasal mucosa, carried asymptomatically but also the cause of severe pneumoniae. The role of the epithelium in maintaining homeostatic interactions or mounting an inflammatory response to invasive S. pneumoniae is currently poorly understood. However, studies have shown that chromatin modifications, at the histone level, induced by bacterial pathogens interfere with the host transcriptional program and promote infection. Here, we uncover a histone modification induced by S. pneumoniae infection maintained for at least 9 days upon clearance of bacteria with antibiotics. Di-methylation of histone H3 on lysine 4 (H3K4me2) is induced in an active manner by bacterial attachment to host cells. We show that infection establishes a unique epigenetic program affecting the transcriptional response of epithelial cells, rendering them more permissive upon secondary infection. Our results establish H3K4me2 as a unique modification induced by infection, distinct from H3K4me3 or me1, which localizes to enhancer regions genome-wide. Therefore, this study reveals evidence that bacterial infection leaves a memory in epithelial cells after bacterial clearance, in an epigenomic mark, thereby altering cellular responses to subsequent infections and promoting infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Chevalier
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Chromatin and Infection Laboratory, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Claudia Chica
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Bioinformatics and Biostatistics Hub, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Justine Matheau
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Chromatin and Infection Laboratory, F-75015, Paris, France
- Bio Sorbonne Paris Cité doctoral school, Department of Infectiology Microbiology, Université Paris Cité, F-75006, Paris, France
| | - Adrien Pain
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Bioinformatics and Biostatistics Hub, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Michael G Connor
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Chromatin and Infection Laboratory, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Melanie A Hamon
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Chromatin and Infection Laboratory, F-75015, Paris, France.
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2
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Joshi K, Wang DO. epidecodeR: a functional exploration tool for epigenetic and epitranscriptomic regulation. Brief Bioinform 2024; 25:bbad521. [PMID: 38271482 PMCID: PMC10810334 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbad521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent technological advances in sequencing DNA and RNA modifications using high-throughput platforms have generated vast epigenomic and epitranscriptomic datasets whose power in transforming life science is yet fully unleashed. Currently available in silico methods have facilitated the identification, positioning and quantitative comparisons of individual modification sites. However, the essential challenge to link specific 'epi-marks' to gene expression in the particular context of cellular and biological processes is unmet. To fast-track exploration, we generated epidecodeR implemented in R, which allows biologists to quickly survey whether an epigenomic or epitranscriptomic status of their interest potentially influences gene expression responses. The evaluation is based on the cumulative distribution function and the statistical significance in differential expression of genes grouped by the number of 'epi-marks'. This tool proves useful in predicting the role of H3K9ac and H3K27ac in associated gene expression after knocking down deacetylases FAM60A and SDS3 and N6-methyl-adenosine-associated gene expression after knocking out the reader proteins. We further used epidecodeR to explore the effectiveness of demethylase FTO inhibitors and histone-associated modifications in drug abuse in animals. epidecodeR is available for downloading as an R package at https://bioconductor.riken.jp/packages/3.13/bioc/html/epidecodeR.html.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kandarp Joshi
- Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (iCeMS), Kyoto University, Yoshida Ushinomiya-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Dan O Wang
- Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (iCeMS), Kyoto University, Yoshida Ushinomiya-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
- Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, RIKEN, 2-2-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan
- New York University Abu Dhabi,Saadiyat Campus C1-031, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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3
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Matsui Y, Djekidel MN, Lindsay K, Samir P, Connolly N, Wu G, Yang X, Fan Y, Xu B, Peng JC. SNIP1 and PRC2 coordinate cell fates of neural progenitors during brain development. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4754. [PMID: 37553330 PMCID: PMC10409800 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40487-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Stem cell survival versus death is a developmentally programmed process essential for morphogenesis, sizing, and quality control of genome integrity and cell fates. Cell death is pervasive during development, but its programming is little known. Here, we report that Smad nuclear interacting protein 1 (SNIP1) promotes neural progenitor cell survival and neurogenesis and is, therefore, integral to brain development. The SNIP1-depleted brain exhibits dysplasia with robust induction of caspase 9-dependent apoptosis. Mechanistically, SNIP1 regulates target genes that promote cell survival and neurogenesis, and its activities are influenced by TGFβ and NFκB signaling pathways. Further, SNIP1 facilitates the genomic occupancy of Polycomb complex PRC2 and instructs H3K27me3 turnover at target genes. Depletion of PRC2 is sufficient to reduce apoptosis and brain dysplasia and to partially restore genetic programs in the SNIP1-depleted brain in vivo. These findings suggest a loci-specific regulation of PRC2 and H3K27 marks to toggle cell survival and death in the developing brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yurika Matsui
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Mohamed Nadhir Djekidel
- Center for Applied Bioinformatics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Katherine Lindsay
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Parimal Samir
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd, Medical Research Building, Room 7, 138E, Galveston, TX, 77550, USA
| | - Nina Connolly
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Gang Wu
- Center for Applied Bioinformatics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Xiaoyang Yang
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Yiping Fan
- Center for Applied Bioinformatics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Beisi Xu
- Center for Applied Bioinformatics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Jamy C Peng
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA.
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Hyle J, Djekidel MN, Williams J, Wright S, Shao Y, Xu B, Li C. Auxin-inducible degron 2 system deciphers functions of CTCF domains in transcriptional regulation. Genome Biol 2023; 24:14. [PMID: 36698211 PMCID: PMC9878928 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-022-02843-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND CTCF is a well-established chromatin architectural protein that also plays various roles in transcriptional regulation. While CTCF biology has been extensively studied, how the domains of CTCF function to regulate transcription remains unknown. Additionally, the original auxin-inducible degron 1 (AID1) system has limitations in investigating the function of CTCF. RESULTS We employ an improved auxin-inducible degron technology, AID2, to facilitate the study of acute depletion of CTCF while overcoming the limitations of the previous AID system. As previously observed through the AID1 system and steady-state RNA analysis, the new AID2 system combined with SLAM-seq confirms that CTCF depletion leads to modest nascent and steady-state transcript changes. A CTCF domain sgRNA library screening identifies the zinc finger (ZF) domain as the region within CTCF with the most functional relevance, including ZFs 1 and 10. Removal of ZFs 1 and 10 reveals genomic regions that independently require these ZFs for DNA binding and transcriptional regulation. Notably, loci regulated by either ZF1 or ZF10 exhibit unique CTCF binding motifs specific to each ZF. CONCLUSIONS By extensively comparing the AID1 and AID2 systems for CTCF degradation in SEM cells, we confirm that AID2 degradation is superior for achieving miniAID-tagged protein degradation without the limitations of the AID1 system. The model we create that combines AID2 depletion of CTCF with exogenous overexpression of CTCF mutants allows us to demonstrate how peripheral ZFs intricately orchestrate transcriptional regulation in a cellular context for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Hyle
- grid.240871.80000 0001 0224 711XDepartment of Tumor Cell Biology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105 USA
| | - Mohamed Nadhir Djekidel
- grid.240871.80000 0001 0224 711XCenter for Applied Bioinformatics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105 USA
| | - Justin Williams
- grid.240871.80000 0001 0224 711XDepartment of Tumor Cell Biology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105 USA
| | - Shaela Wright
- grid.240871.80000 0001 0224 711XDepartment of Tumor Cell Biology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105 USA
| | - Ying Shao
- grid.240871.80000 0001 0224 711XDepartment of Computational Biology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105 USA
| | - Beisi Xu
- grid.240871.80000 0001 0224 711XCenter for Applied Bioinformatics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105 USA
| | - Chunliang Li
- grid.240871.80000 0001 0224 711XDepartment of Tumor Cell Biology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105 USA
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Hussain S, Yates C, Campbell MJ. Vitamin D and Systems Biology. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14245197. [PMID: 36558356 PMCID: PMC9782494 DOI: 10.3390/nu14245197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The biological actions of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) have been investigated intensively for over 100 years and has led to the identification of significant insights into the repertoire of its biological actions. These were initially established to be centered on the regulation of calcium transport in the colon and deposition in bone. Beyond these well-known calcemic roles, other roles have emerged in the regulation of cell differentiation processes and have an impact on metabolism. The purpose of the current review is to consider where applying systems biology (SB) approaches may begin to generate a more precise understanding of where the VDR is, and is not, biologically impactful. Two SB approaches have been developed and begun to reveal insight into VDR biological functions. In a top-down SB approach genome-wide scale data are statistically analyzed, and from which a role for the VDR emerges in terms of being a hub in a biological network. Such approaches have confirmed significant roles, for example, in myeloid differentiation and the control of inflammation and innate immunity. In a bottom-up SB approach, current biological understanding is built into a kinetic model which is then applied to existing biological data to explain the function and identify unknown behavior. To date, this has not been applied to the VDR, but has to the related ERα and identified previously unknown mechanisms of control. One arena where applying top-down and bottom-up SB approaches may be informative is in the setting of prostate cancer health disparities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Hussain
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Clayton Yates
- Department of Biology and Center for Cancer Research, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
- Department of Oncology Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Moray J. Campbell
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
- Correspondence:
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Costa-Silva J, Domingues DS, Menotti D, Hungria M, Lopes FM. Temporal progress of gene expression analysis with RNA-Seq data: A review on the relationship between computational methods. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2022; 21:86-98. [PMID: 36514333 PMCID: PMC9730150 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2022.11.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Analysis of differential gene expression from RNA-seq data has become a standard for several research areas. The steps for the computational analysis include many data types and file formats, and a wide variety of computational tools that can be applied alone or together as pipelines. This paper presents a review of the differential expression analysis pipeline, addressing its steps and the respective objectives, the principal methods available in each step, and their properties, therefore introducing an organized overview to this context. This review aims to address mainly the aspects involved in the differentially expressed gene (DEG) analysis from RNA sequencing data (RNA-seq), considering the computational methods. In addition, a timeline of the computational methods for DEG is shown and discussed, and the relationships existing between the most important computational tools are presented by an interaction network. A discussion on the challenges and gaps in DEG analysis is also highlighted in this review. This paper will serve as a tutorial for new entrants into the field and help established users update their analysis pipelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Costa-Silva
- Department of Informatics – Federal University of Paraná, Rua Coronel Francisco Heráclito dos Santos, 100, 81531-990 Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Douglas S. Domingues
- Department of Genetics, “Luiz de Queiroz” College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Av. Pádua Dias, 11, 13418-900 Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - David Menotti
- Department of Informatics – Federal University of Paraná, Rua Coronel Francisco Heráclito dos Santos, 100, 81531-990 Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Mariangela Hungria
- Department of Soil Biotecnology - Embrapa Soybean, Cx. Postal 231, 86000-970 Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Fabrício Martins Lopes
- Department of Computer Science, Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná – UTFPR, Av. Alberto Carazzai, 1640, 86300-000, Cornélio Procópio, Paraná, Brazil
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7
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Jiang Y, Zhang X, Wei T, Qi X, Abba IA, Zhang N, Chen Y, Wang R, Shi C. Transcriptomic and ChIP-seq Integrative Analysis Identifies KDM5A-Target Genes in Cardiac Fibroblasts. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022; 9:929030. [PMID: 35845066 PMCID: PMC9283924 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.929030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiac fibrosis is a common pathological feature in cardiac remodeling. This study aimed to explore the role of KDM5A in cardiac fibrosis via bioinformatics analysis. Cardiac fibroblasts (CFs) were harvested and cultured from 10 dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) patients who underwent heart transplantation. Western blotting was applied to verify that KDM5A is regulated by angiotensin II (Ang II) via the PI3k/AKT signaling pathway. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were analyzed by transcriptomics. ChIP-seq and ChIP-qPCR were used to identify the genes bound by KDM5A. In integrative analysis, weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) was performed to identify highly relevant gene modules. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were performed for the key genes in modules. The STRING database, Cytoscape, and MCODE were applied to construct the protein–protein interaction (PPI) network and screen hub genes. To verify the expression of DEGs regulated by KDM5A, Western blotting and immunofluorescence were performed in myocardial tissue samples. Immunofluorescence verified the vimentin positivity of CFs. Ang II upregulated the expression of KDM5A in CFs via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. GO analysis of DEGs indicated that regulation of vasoconstriction, extracellular region, and calcium ion binding were enriched when KDM5A interfered with CPI or Ang II. KEGG analysis of the DEGs revealed the involvement of ECM-receptor interaction, focal adhesion, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, cell adhesion, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy pathways. Three hub genes (IGF1, MYH11, and TGFB3) were identified via four different algorithms. Subsequent verification in patient samples demonstrated that the hub genes, which were regulated by KDM5A, were downregulated in DCM samples. KDM5A is a key regulator in the progression of cardiac fibrosis. In this successful integrative analysis, IGF1, MYH11, and TGFB3 were determined to be coordinately expressed to participate in cardiac fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyao Jiang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Tianjin First Center Hospital and NanKai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Ting Wei
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Xianjie Qi
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Isah Amir Abba
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Nana Zhang
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Yao Chen
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Ran Wang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Chao Shi
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
- *Correspondence: Chao Shi
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Wuelling M, Neu C, Thiesen AM, Kitanovski S, Cao Y, Lange A, Westendorf AM, Hoffmann D, Vortkamp A. Epigenetic Mechanisms Mediating Cell State Transitions in Chondrocytes. J Bone Miner Res 2021; 36:968-985. [PMID: 33534175 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.4263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Epigenetic modifications play critical roles in regulating cell lineage differentiation, but the epigenetic mechanisms guiding specific differentiation steps within a cell lineage have rarely been investigated. To decipher such mechanisms, we used the defined transition from proliferating (PC) into hypertrophic chondrocytes (HC) during endochondral ossification as a model. We established a map of activating and repressive histone modifications for each cell type. ChromHMM state transition analysis and Pareto-based integration of differential levels of mRNA and epigenetic marks revealed that differentiation-associated gene repression is initiated by the addition of H3K27me3 to promoters still carrying substantial levels of activating marks. Moreover, the integrative analysis identified genes specifically expressed in cells undergoing the transition into hypertrophy. Investigation of enhancer profiles detected surprising differences in enhancer number, location, and transcription factor binding sites between the two closely related cell types. Furthermore, cell type-specific upregulation of gene expression was associated with increased numbers of H3K27ac peaks. Pathway analysis identified PC-specific enhancers associated with chondrogenic genes, whereas HC-specific enhancers mainly control metabolic pathways linking epigenetic signature to biological functions. Since HC-specific enhancers show a higher conservation in postnatal tissues, the switch to metabolic pathways seems to be a hallmark of differentiated tissues. Surprisingly, the analysis of H3K27ac levels at super-enhancers revealed a rapid adaption of H3K27ac occupancy to changes in gene expression, supporting the importance of enhancer modulation for acute alterations in gene expression. © 2021 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Wuelling
- Developmental Biology, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Christoph Neu
- Developmental Biology, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Andrea M Thiesen
- Developmental Biology, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Simo Kitanovski
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biophysics, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Yingying Cao
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biophysics, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Anja Lange
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biophysics, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Astrid M Westendorf
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Daniel Hoffmann
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biophysics, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Andrea Vortkamp
- Developmental Biology, Centre for Medical Biotechnology, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
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