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Deguire F, López-Arango G, Knoth IS, Côté V, Agbogba K, Lippé S. EEG repetition and change detection responses in infancy predict adaptive functioning in preschool age: a longitudinal study. Sci Rep 2023; 13:9980. [PMID: 37340003 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34669-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are mostly diagnosed around the age of 4-5 years, which is too late considering that the brain is most susceptive to interventions during the first two years of life. Currently, diagnosis of NDDs is based on observed behaviors and symptoms, but identification of objective biomarkers would allow for earlier screening. In this longitudinal study, we investigated the relationship between repetition and change detection responses measured using an EEG oddball task during the first year of life and at two years of age, and cognitive abilities and adaptive functioning during preschool years (4 years old). Identification of early biomarkers is challenging given that there is a lot of variability in developmental courses among young infants. Therefore, the second aim of this study is to assess whether brain growth is a factor of interindividual variability that influences repetition and change detection responses. To obtain variability in brain growth beyond the normative range, infants with macrocephaly were included in our sample. Thus, 43 normocephalic children and 20 macrocephalic children were tested. Cognitive abilities at preschool age were assessed with the WPPSI-IV and adaptive functioning was measured with the ABAS-II. Time-frequency analyses were conducted on the EEG data. Results indicated that repetition and change detection responses in the first year of life predict adaptive functioning at 4 years of age, independently of head circumference. Moreover, our findings suggested that brain growth explains variability in neural responses mostly in the first years of life, so that macrocephalic children did not display repetition suppression responses, while normocephalic children did. This longitudinal study demonstrates that the first year of life is an important period for the early screening of children at risk of developing NDDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florence Deguire
- Psychology Department, University of Montreal, Marie Victorin Building, 90 Vincent-D'Indy Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada.
- Pôle en neuropsychologie et neuroscience cognitive et computationnelle (CerebrUM), University of Montreal, Marie Victorin Building, 90 Vincent-D'Indy Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada.
- Research Center of the CHU Sainte-Justine, University of Montreal, 3175 Chemin de la Côte-Sainte-Catherine, Montreal, QC, Canada.
| | - Gabriela López-Arango
- Psychology Department, University of Montreal, Marie Victorin Building, 90 Vincent-D'Indy Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Pôle en neuropsychologie et neuroscience cognitive et computationnelle (CerebrUM), University of Montreal, Marie Victorin Building, 90 Vincent-D'Indy Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Research Center of the CHU Sainte-Justine, University of Montreal, 3175 Chemin de la Côte-Sainte-Catherine, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Inga Sophia Knoth
- Research Center of the CHU Sainte-Justine, University of Montreal, 3175 Chemin de la Côte-Sainte-Catherine, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Valérie Côté
- Psychology Department, University of Montreal, Marie Victorin Building, 90 Vincent-D'Indy Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Pôle en neuropsychologie et neuroscience cognitive et computationnelle (CerebrUM), University of Montreal, Marie Victorin Building, 90 Vincent-D'Indy Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Research Center of the CHU Sainte-Justine, University of Montreal, 3175 Chemin de la Côte-Sainte-Catherine, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Kristian Agbogba
- Research Center of the CHU Sainte-Justine, University of Montreal, 3175 Chemin de la Côte-Sainte-Catherine, Montreal, QC, Canada
- École de technologie supérieure, University of Quebec, 1100 Notre-Dame W, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Sarah Lippé
- Psychology Department, University of Montreal, Marie Victorin Building, 90 Vincent-D'Indy Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Pôle en neuropsychologie et neuroscience cognitive et computationnelle (CerebrUM), University of Montreal, Marie Victorin Building, 90 Vincent-D'Indy Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Research Center of the CHU Sainte-Justine, University of Montreal, 3175 Chemin de la Côte-Sainte-Catherine, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Gilbreath D, Hagood D, Alatorre-Cruz GC, Andres A, Downs H, Larson-Prior LJ. Effects of Early Nutrition Factors on Baseline Neurodevelopment during the First 6 Months of Life: An EEG Study. Nutrients 2023; 15:1535. [PMID: 36986265 PMCID: PMC10055905 DOI: 10.3390/nu15061535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Throughout infancy, the brain undergoes rapid changes in structure and function that are sensitive to environmental influences, such as diet. Breastfed (BF) infants score higher on cognitive tests throughout infancy and into adolescence than formula fed (FF) infants, and these differences in neurocognitive development are reflected in higher concentrations of white and grey matter as measured by MRI. To further explore the effect diet has on cognitive development, electroencephalography (EEG) is used as a direct measure of neuronal activity and to assess specific frequency bands associated with cognitive processes. Task-free baseline EEGs were collected from infants fed with human milk (BF), dairy-based formula (MF), or soy-based formula (SF) at 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 months of age to explore differences in frequency bands in both sensor and source space. Significant global differences in sensor space were seen in beta and gamma bands between BF and SF groups at ages 2 and 6 months, and these differences were further observed through volumetric modeling in source space. We conclude that BF infants exhibit earlier brain maturation reflected in greater power spectral density in these frequency bands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Gilbreath
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center (ACNC), Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
- Department of Neurobiology and Developmental Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS), Little Rock, AR 72207, USA
| | - Darcy Hagood
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center (ACNC), Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
| | - Graciela Catalina Alatorre-Cruz
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center (ACNC), Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS), Little Rock, AR 72207, USA
| | - Aline Andres
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center (ACNC), Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS), Little Rock, AR 72207, USA
| | - Heather Downs
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center (ACNC), Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
| | - Linda J. Larson-Prior
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center (ACNC), Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
- Department of Neurobiology and Developmental Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS), Little Rock, AR 72207, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS), Little Rock, AR 72207, USA
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Uhler K, Tollin DJ, Gilley PM. EEG Alpha Band Responses Reveal Amplification Benefits in Infants with Hearing Loss. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 10:600. [PMID: 36980158 PMCID: PMC10047398 DOI: 10.3390/children10030600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Our objective was to examine the effects of hearing aid amplification on auditory detection and discrimination in infants who were hard of hearing (IHH) using a physiological measure of auditory perception. We recorded EEG from 41 sleeping IHH aged 1.04 to 5.62 months while presenting auditory stimuli in a mismatch response paradigm. Responses were recorded during two listening conditions for each participant: aided and unaided. Temporal envelopes of the mismatch response in the EEG alpha band (6-12 Hz) were extracted from the latent, time-frequency transformed data. Aided alpha band responses were greater than unaided responses for the deviant trials but were not different for the standard trials. Responses to the deviant trials were greater than responses to the standard trials for the aided conditions but were not different for the unaided conditions. These results suggest that the alpha band mismatch can be used to examine both detection and discrimination of speech and non-speech sounds in IHH. With further study, the alpha band mismatch could expand and refine our abilities to validate hearing aid fittings at younger ages than current clinical protocols allow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Uhler
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine & Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Daniel J Tollin
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Phillip M Gilley
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine & Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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Cone BK, Smith S, Smith DEC. Acoustic Change Complex and Visually Reinforced Infant Speech Discrimination Measures of Vowel Contrast Detection. Ear Hear 2022; 43:531-544. [PMID: 34456301 PMCID: PMC8873241 DOI: 10.1097/aud.0000000000001116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To measure the effect of stimulus rate and vowel change direction on the acoustic change complex (ACC) latencies and amplitudes and compare ACC metrics to behavioral measures of vowel contrast detection for infants tested under the age of 1 year. We tested the hypothesis that the direction of spectral energy shift from a vowel change would result in differences in the ACC, owing to the sensitivity of cortical neurons to the direction of frequency change. We evaluated the effect of the stimulus rate (1/s versus 2/s) on the infants' ACC. We evaluated the ACC amplitude ratio's sensitivity (proportion of ACCs present for each change trial) and compared it to perceptual responses obtained using a visually reinforced infant speech discrimination paradigm (VRISD). This report provides normative data from infants for the ACC toward the ultimate goal of developing a clinically useful index of neural capacity for vowel discrimination. DESIGN Twenty-nine infants, nine females, 4.0 to 11.8 months of age, participated. All participants were born at full term and passed their newborn hearing screens. None had risk factors for hearing or neurologic impairment. Cortical auditory evoked potentials were obtained in response to synthesized vowel tokens /a/, /i/, /o/, and /u/ presented at a rate of 1- or 2/s in an oddball stimulus paradigm with a 25% probability of the deviant stimulus. All combinations of vowel tokens were tested at the two rates. The ACC was obtained in response to the deviant stimulus. The infants were also tested for vowel contrast detection using a VRISD paradigm with the same combinations of vowel tokens used for the ACC. The mean age at the time of the ACC test was 5.4 months, while the mean age at the behavioral test was 6.8 months. RESULTS Variations in ACC amplitude and latency occurred as a function of the initial vowel token and the contrast token. However, the hypothesis that the direction of vowel (spectral) change would result in significantly larger change responses for high-to-low spectral changes was not supported. The contrasts with /a/ as the leading vowel of the contrast pair resulted in the largest ACC amplitudes than other conditions. Significant differences in the ACC presence and amplitude were observed as a function of rate, with 2/s resulting in ACCs with the largest amplitude ratios. Latency effects of vowel contrast and rate were present, but not systematic. The ACC amplitude ratio's sensitivity for detecting a vowel contrast was greater for the 2/s rate than the 1/s rate. For an amplitude ratio criterion of ≥1.5, the sensitivity was 93% for ACC component P2-N2 at 2/s, whereas at 1/s sensitivity was 70%. VRISD tests of vowel-contrast detection had a 71% hit and a 21% false-positive rate. Many infants who could not reach performance criteria for VRISD had ACC amplitude ratios of ≥2.0. CONCLUSIONS The ACC for vowel contrasts presented at a rate of 2/s is a robust index of vowel-contrast detection when obtained in typically developing infants under the age of 1 year. The ACC is present in over 90% of infants tested at this rate when an amplitude ratio criterion of ≥1.5 is used to define a response. The amplitude ratio appears to be a sensitive metric for the difference between a control and contrast condition. The ACC can be obtained in infants who do not yet exhibit valid behavioral responses for vowel change contrasts and may be useful for estimating neural capacity for discriminating these sounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara K. Cone
- Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, The University of Arizona
| | - Spencer Smith
- Texas Auditory Neuroscience (TexAN) Lab, Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin
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Charuthamrong P, Israsena P, Hemrungrojn S, Pan-ngum S. Automatic Speech Discrimination Assessment Methods Based on Event-Related Potentials (ERP). SENSORS 2022; 22:s22072702. [PMID: 35408316 PMCID: PMC9002564 DOI: 10.3390/s22072702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Speech discrimination is used by audiologists in diagnosing and determining treatment for hearing loss patients. Usually, assessing speech discrimination requires subjective responses. Using electroencephalography (EEG), a method that is based on event-related potentials (ERPs), could provide objective speech discrimination. In this work we proposed a visual-ERP-based method to assess speech discrimination using pictures that represent word meaning. The proposed method was implemented with three strategies, each with different number of pictures and test sequences. Machine learning was adopted to classify between the task conditions based on features that were extracted from EEG signals. The results from the proposed method were compared to that of a similar visual-ERP-based method using letters and a method that is based on the auditory mismatch negativity (MMN) component. The P3 component and the late positive potential (LPP) component were observed in the two visual-ERP-based methods while MMN was observed during the MMN-based method. A total of two out of three strategies of the proposed method, along with the MMN-based method, achieved approximately 80% average classification accuracy by a combination of support vector machine (SVM) and common spatial pattern (CSP). Potentially, these methods could serve as a pre-screening tool to make speech discrimination assessment more accessible, particularly in areas with a shortage of audiologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pimwipa Charuthamrong
- Interdisciplinary Program of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
| | - Pasin Israsena
- National Electronics and Computer Technology Center, 112 Thailand Science Park, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand;
| | - Solaphat Hemrungrojn
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
| | - Setha Pan-ngum
- Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Correspondence:
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Uhler K, Hunter S, Gilley PM. Mismatched response predicts behavioral speech discrimination outcomes in infants with hearing loss and normal hearing. INFANCY 2021; 26:327-348. [PMID: 33481354 DOI: 10.1111/infa.12386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Children with hearing loss (HL) remain at risk for poorer language abilities than normal hearing (NH) children despite targeted interventions; reasons for these differences remain unclear. In NH children, research suggests speech discrimination is related to language outcomes, yet we know little about it in children with HL under the age of 2 years. We utilized a vowel contrast, /a-i/, and a consonant-vowel contrast, /ba-da/, to examine speech discrimination in 47 NH infants and 40 infants with HL. At Mean age =3 months, EEG recorded from 11 scalp electrodes was used to compute the time-frequency mismatched response (TF-MMRSE ) to the contrasts; at Mean age =9 months, behavioral discrimination was assessed using a head turn task. A machine learning (ML) classifier was used to predict behavioral discrimination when given an arbitrary TF-MMRSE as input, achieving accuracies of 73% for exact classification and 92% for classification within a distance of one class. Linear fits revealed a robust relationship regardless of hearing status or speech contrast. TF-MMRSE responses in the delta (1-3.5 Hz), theta (3.5-8 Hz), and alpha (8-12 Hz) bands explained the most variance in behavioral task performance. Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of using TF-MMRSE to predict later behavioral speech discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Uhler
- Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado, Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Sharon Hunter
- University of Colorado, Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Phillip M Gilley
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
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de la Salle S, Shah D, Choueiry J, Bowers H, McIntosh J, Ilivitsky V, Knott V. NMDA Receptor Antagonist Effects on Speech-Related Mismatch Negativity and Its Underlying Oscillatory and Source Activity in Healthy Humans. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:455. [PMID: 31139075 PMCID: PMC6517681 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Previous studies in schizophrenia have consistently shown that deficits in the generation of the auditory mismatch negativity (MMN) – a pre-attentive, event-related potential (ERP) typically elicited by changes to simple sound features – are linked to N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor hypofunction. Concomitant with extensive language dysfunction in schizophrenia, patients also exhibit MMN deficits to changes in speech but their relationship to NMDA-mediated neurotransmission is not clear. Accordingly, our study aimed to investigate speech MMNs in healthy humans and their underlying electrophysiological mechanisms in response to NMDA antagonist treatment. We also evaluated the relationship between baseline MMN/electrocortical activity and emergent schizophrenia-like symptoms associated with NMDA receptor blockade. Methods: In a sample of 18 healthy volunteers, a multi-feature Finnish language paradigm incorporating changes in syllables, vowels and consonant stimuli was used to assess the acute effects of the NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine and placebo on the MMN. Further, measures of underlying neural activity, including evoked theta power, theta phase locking and source-localized current density in cortical regions of interest were assessed. Subjective symptoms were assessed with the Clinician Administered Dissociative States Scale (CADSS). Results: Participants exhibited significant ketamine-induced increases in psychosis-like symptoms and depending on temporal or frontal recording region, co-occurred with reductions in MMN generation in response to syllable frequency/intensity, vowel duration, across vowel and consonant deviants. MMN attenuation was associated with decreases in evoked theta power, theta phase locking and diminished current density in auditory and inferior frontal (language-related cortical) regions. Baseline (placebo) MMN and underlying electrophysiological features associated with the processing of changes in syllable intensity correlated with the degree of psychotomimetic response to ketamine. Conclusion: Ketamine-induced impairments in healthy human speech MMNs and their underlying electrocortical mechanisms closely resemble those observed in schizophrenia and support a model of dysfunctional NMDA receptor-mediated neurotransmission of language processing deficits in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dhrasti Shah
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Joelle Choueiry
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Hayley Bowers
- Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Judy McIntosh
- The Royal's Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | | | - Verner Knott
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,The Royal's Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Royal Ottawa Mental Health Centre, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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Pivik R, Andres A, Tennal KB, Gu Y, Downs H, Bellando BJ, Jarratt K, Cleves MA, Badger TM. Resting gamma power during the postnatal critical period for GABAergic system development is modulated by infant diet and sex. Int J Psychophysiol 2019; 135:73-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Revised: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Uhler KM, Hunter SK, Tierney E, Gilley PM. The relationship between mismatch response and the acoustic change complex in normal hearing infants. Clin Neurophysiol 2018; 129:1148-1160. [PMID: 29635099 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2018.02.132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the utility of the mismatch response (MMR) and acoustic change complex (ACC) for assessing speech discrimination in infants. METHODS Continuous EEG was recorded during sleep from 48 (24 male, 20 female) normally hearing aged 1.77 to -4.57 months in response to two auditory discrimination tasks. ACC was recorded in response to a three-vowel sequence (/i/-/a/-/i/). MMR was recorded in response to a standard vowel, /a/, (probability 85%), and to a deviant vowel, /i/, (probability of 15%). A priori comparisons included: age, sex, and sleep state. These were conducted separately for each of the three bandpass filter settings were compared (1-18, 1-30, and 1-40 Hz). RESULTS A priori tests revealed no differences in MMR or ACC for age, sex, or sleep state for any of the three filter settings. ACC and MMR responses were prominently observed in all 44 sleeping infants (data from four infants were excluded). Significant differences observed for ACC were to the onset and offset of stimuli. However, neither group nor individual differences were observed to changes in speech stimuli in the ACC. MMR revealed two prominent peaks occurring at the stimulus onset and at the stimulus offset. Permutation t-tests revealed significant differences between the standard and deviant stimuli for both the onset and offset MMR peaks (p < 0.01). The 1-18 Hz filter setting revealed significant differences for all participants in the MMR paradigm. CONCLUSION Both ACC and MMR responses were observed to auditory stimulation suggesting that infants perceive and process speech information even during sleep. Significant differences between the standard and deviant responses were observed in the MMR, but not ACC paradigm. These findings suggest that the MMR is sensitive to detecting auditory/speech discrimination processing. SIGNIFICANCE This paper identified that MMR can be used to identify discrimination in normal hearing infants. This suggests that MMR has potential for use in infants with hearing loss to validate hearing aid fittings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin M Uhler
- University of Colorado Denver, Departments of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Otolaryngology, and Psychiatry, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA.
| | - Sharon K Hunter
- University of Colorado Denver, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Elyse Tierney
- University of Colorado Denver, Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Phillip M Gilley
- University of Colorado, Boulder, Institute of Cognitive Science, Neurodynamics Laboratory, Boulder, CO, USA
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