Serum-based diagnosis of Pneumocystis pneumonia by detection of Pneumocystis jirovecii DNA and 1,3-β-D-glucan in HIV-infected patients: a retrospective case control study

Global prevalence, mortality, and main characteristics of HIV-associated pneumocystosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The epidemiology of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-associated pneumocystosis (HAP) is poorly described on a worldwide scale. We searched related databases between January 2000 and December 2022 for studies reporting HAP. Meta-analysis was performed using StatsDirect (version 2.7.9) and STATA (version 17) according to the random-effects model for DerSimonian and Laird method and metan and metaprop commands, respectively. Twenty-nine studies with 38554 HIV-positive, 79893 HIV-negative, and 4044 HAP populations were included. The pooled prevalence of HAP was 35.4% (95% CI 23.8 to 47.9). In contrast, the pooled prevalence of PCP among HIV-negative patients was 10.16% (95% CI 2 to 25.3). HIV-positive patients are almost 12 times more susceptible to PCP than the HIV-negative population (OR: 11.710; 95% CI: 5.420 to 25.297). The mortality among HAP patients was 52% higher than non-PCP patients (OR 1.522; 95% CI 0.959 to 2.416). HIV-positive men had a 7% higher chance rate for PCP than women (OR 1.073; 95% CI 0.674 to 1.706). Prophylactic (OR: 6.191; 95% CI: 0.945 to 40.545) and antiretroviral therapy (OR 3.356; 95% CI 0.785 to 14.349) were used in HAP patients six and three times more than HIV-positive PCP-negatives, respectively. The control and management strategies should revise and updated by health policy-makers on a worldwide scale. Finally, for better management and understanding of the epidemiology and characteristics of this coinfection, designing further studies is recommended.

Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia Secondary to Blinatumomab Therapy: A Case Report

INTRODUCTION

With the increasing use of blinatumomab in relapsed or refractory B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), including minimal residual disease (MRD)-positive cases, awareness of its adverse effects has gradually improved. Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) associated with blinatumomab therapy is rare.

CASE PRESENTATION

We present a case of PCP in a patient undergoing blinatumomab therapy. A 70-year-old female diagnosed with Philadelphia-like CRLF2 overexpression B-cell precursor ALL received blinatumomab as consolidation therapy after achieving complete remission with prior induction chemotherapy. On the second day of blinatumomab infusion, she developed intermittent low-grade fever, and chest computed tomography (CT) revealed subtle infiltrates and nodules. Despite empiric trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) prophylaxis, she progressed to significant shortness of breath and type I respiratory failure, with increased lactate dehydrogenase and β-D-glucan assays. Chest CT showed diffuse ground-glass opacities with scattered small nodules. The dry cough prompted next-generation sequencing of peripheral blood, which tested positive for pneumocystis jirovecii without evidence of other pathogens. Consequently, the patient was diagnosed with PCP. The first cycle of blinatumomab had to be discontinued, and therapeutic dosages of TMP-SMX and dexamethasone were administered, resulting in full recovery and stable condition during follow-ups.

CONCLUSION

PCP is rare in B-cell precursor ALL patients receiving blinatumomab therapy but manifests with early onset and rapid disease progression. Despite prophylaxis, PCP infection cannot be ignored during blinatumomab therapy. Therefore, heightened attention is warranted when using blinatumomab therapy.

Nucleic-Acid-Based Molecular Fungal Diagnostics: A Way to a Better Future

The world has seen a tremendous increase in the number of fungal infections during the past two decades. Recently, the World Health Organisation released the pathogen priority list for fungal infections, signifying the importance of these infections in the fields of research and public health. Microbiology laboratories demand an upgrade in the diagnostic system to keep up with the increased burden of these infections. Diagnosis of fungal infections using conventional techniques has always faced limitations in terms of specificity, sensitivity, and turnaround time. Although these methods are the core pillars of the diagnosis, there is an increased need for molecular approaches. Molecular techniques have revolutionised the field of fungal diagnostics. The diverse array of molecular techniques, including techniques like Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), have emerged as a cornerstone in fungal diagnostics. Molecular techniques have transformed fungal diagnostics, providing powerful tools for the rapid and accurate identification of pathogens. As these technologies continue to evolve, their integration into routine clinical practice holds the promise of improving patient outcomes through timely and targeted antifungal interventions. This review will cover the molecular approaches involved in fungal diagnostics, moving from the basic techniques to the advanced-level nucleic-acid-based molecular approaches providing a high throughput and decreased turnaround time for the diagnosis of serious fungal infections.

Relationship between clinical features and droplet digital PCR copy number in non-HIV patients with pneumocystis pneumonia

OBJECTIVE

Droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) is a novel assay to detect pneumocystis jjrovecii (Pj) which has been defined to be more sensitive than qPCR in recent studies. We aimed to explore whether clinical features of pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) were associated with ddPCR copy numbers of Pj.

METHODS

A total of 48 PCP patients were retrospectively included. Pj detection was implemented by ddPCR assay within 4 h. Bronchoalveolar fluid (BALF) samples were collected from 48 patients with molecular diagnosis as PCP via metagenomic next generation sequencing (mNGS) or quantitative PCR detection. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression were performed to screen out possible indicators for the severity of PCP. The patients were divided into two groups according to ddPCR copy numbers, and their clinical features were further analyzed.

RESULTS

Pj loading was a pro rata increase with serum (1,3)-beta-D glucan, D-dimmer, neutrophil percentage, procalcitonin and BALF polymorphonuclear leucocyte percentage, while negative correlation with albumin, PaO2/FiO2, BALF cell count, and BALF lymphocyte percentage. D-dimmer and ddPCR copy number of Pj were independent indicators for moderate/severe PCP patients with PaO2/FiO2 lower than 300. We made a ROC analysis of ddPCR copy number of Pj for PaO2/FiO2 index and grouped the patients according to the cut-off value (2.75). The high copy numbers group was characterized by higher level of inflammatory markers. Compared to low copy number group, there was lower level of the total cell count while higher level of polymorphonuclear leucocyte percentage in BALF in the high copy numbers group. Different from patients with high copy numbers, those with high copy numbers had a tendency to develop more severe complications and required advanced respiratory support.

CONCLUSION

The scenarios of patients infected with high ddPCR copy numbers of Pj showed more adverse clinical conditions. Pj loading could reflect the severity of PCP to some extent.

Risk factors associated with Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in non-HIV immunocompromised patients and co-pathogens analysis by metagenomic next-generation sequencing

BACKGROUND

Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP) is one of the most common opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients. However, the accurate prediction of the development of PJP in non-HIV immunocompromised patients is still unclear.

METHODS

Non-HIV immunocompromised patients confirmed diagnosis of PJP by the clinical symptoms, chest computed tomography and etiological results of metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) were enrolled as observation group. Another group of matched non-HIV immunocompromised patients with non-PJP pneumonia were enrolled to control group. The risk factors for the development of PJP and the co-pathogens in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) detected by mNGS were analyzed.  RESULTS: A total of 67 (33 PJP, 34 non-PJP) participants were enrolled from Fujian Provincial Hospital. The ages, males and underlying illnesses were not significantly different between the two groups. Compared to non-PJP patients, PJP patients were more tends to have the symptoms of fever and dyspnea. The LYM and ALB were significantly lower in PJP patients than in non-PJP patients. Conversely, LDH and serum BDG in PJP patients were significantly higher than in non-PJP controls. For immunological indicators, the levels of immunoglobulin A, G, M and complement C3, C4, the numbers of T, B, and NK cells, had no statistical difference between these two groups. Logistic multivariate analysis showed that concomitant use of corticosteroids and immunosuppressant (OR 14.146, P = 0.004) and the lymphocyte counts < 0.7 × 10⁹/L (OR 6.882, P = 0.011) were risk factors for the development of PJP in non-HIV immunocompromised patients. 81.82% (27/33) and 64.71% (22/34) mixed infections were identified by mNGS in the PJP group and non-PJP group separately. CMV, EBV and Candida were the leading co-pathogens in PJP patients. The percentages of CMV and EBV identified by mNGS in PJP group were significantly higher than those in the control group(p < 0.005).  CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians should pay close attention to the development of PJP in non-HIV immunocompromised patients who possess the risk factors of concomitant use of corticosteroids and immunosuppressant and the lymphocyte counts < 0.7 × 10⁹/L. Prophylaxis for PJP cannot rely solely on CD4⁺ T counts in non-HIV immunocompromised patients. Whether CMV infection increases the risk of PJP remains to be further investigated.

Pneumocystis pneumonia in COVID-19 patients: A comprehensive review

The admitted patients of intensive care units with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) meet the challenges of subsequent infections. Opportunistic fungal infections such as Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) are among the important factors in the context of COVID-19 patients affecting illness severity and mortality. We reviewed the literature on COVID-19 patients with PCP to identify features of this infection. Although studies confirmed at least the presence of one immunosuppressive condition in half of PCP patients, this disease can also occur in immunocompetent patients who developed the immunosuppressive condition during Covid-19 treatment. The major risk factors associated with COVID-19 patients with PCP can be considered low lymphocyte counts and corticosteroid therapy. Diagnostic and treatment options are complicated by the overlapping clinical and radiologic characteristics of PCP and COVID-19 pneumonia. Therefore, physicians should comprehensively evaluate high-risk patients for PCP prophylaxis.

Opportunistic etiological agents causing lung infections: emerging need to transform lung-targeted delivery

Lung diseases continue to draw considerable attention from biomedical and public health care agencies. The lung with the largest epithelial surface area is continuously exposed to the external environment during exchanging gas. Therefore, the chances of respiratory disorders and lung infections are overgrowing. This review has covered promising and opportunistic etiologic agents responsible for lung infections. These pathogens infect the lungs either directly or indirectly. However, it is difficult to intervene in lung diseases using available oral or parenteral antimicrobial formulations. Many pieces of research have been done in the last two decades to improve inhalable antimicrobial formulations. However, very few have been approved for human use. This review article discusses the approved inhalable antimicrobial agents (AMAs) and identifies why pulmonary delivery is explored. Additionally, the basic anatomy of the respiratory system linked with barriers to AMA delivery has been discussed here. This review opens several new scopes for researchers to work on pulmonary medicines for specific diseases and bring more respiratory medication to market.

A comprehensive clinical guide for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: a missing therapeutic target in HIV-uninfected patients

INTRODUCTION

Pneumocystis jirovecii is an opportunistic, human-specific fungus that causes Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). PCP symptoms are nonspecific. A patient with P. jirovecii and another lung infection faces a diagnostic challenge. It may be difficult to determine which of these agents is responsible for the clinical symptoms, preventing effective treatment. Diagnostic and treatment efforts have been made more difficult by the rising frequency with which coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) and PCP co-occur.

AREAS COVERED

Herein, we provide a comprehensive review of clinical and pharmacological recommendations along with a literature review of PCP in immunocompromised patients focusing on HIV-uninfected patients.

EXPERT OPINION

PCP may be masked by identifying co-existing pathogens that are not necessarily responsible for the observed infection. Patients with severe form COVID-19 should be examined for underlying immunodeficiency, and co-infections must be considered as co-infection with P. jirovecii may worsen COVID-19's severity and fatality. PCP should be investigated in patients with PCP risk factors who come with pneumonia and suggestive radiographic symptoms but have not previously received PCP prophylaxis. PCP prophylaxis should be explored in individuals with various conditions that impair the immune system, depending on their PCP risk.

Usefulness of ß-d-Glucan Assay for the First-Line Diagnosis of Pneumocystis Pneumonia and for Discriminating between Pneumocystis Colonization and Pneumocystis Pneumonia

According to the immunodepression status, the diagnosis of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PjP) may be difficult. Molecular methods appear very sensitive, but they lack specificity because Pj DNA can be detected in Pneumocystis-colonized patients. The aim of this study was to evaluate the value of a serum ß-d-Glucan (BDG) assay for the diagnosis of PjP in a large cohort of HIV-negative and HIV-positive patients, either as a first-line diagnostic test for PjP or as a tool to distinguish between colonization and PjP in cases of low fungal load. Data of Pj qPCR performed on bronchopulmonary specimens over a 3-year period were retrieved retrospectively. For each result, we searched for a BDG serum assay performed within ±5 days. Among the 69 episodes that occurred in HIV-positive patients and the 609 episodes that occurred in immunocompromised HIV-negative patients, we find an equivalent sensitivity of BDG assays compared with molecular methods to diagnose probable/proven PjP, in a first-line strategy. Furthermore, BDG assay can be used confidently to distinguish between infected and colonized patients using a 80 pg/mL cut-off. Finally, it is necessary to search for causes of false positivity to increase BDG assay performance. BDG assay represents a valuable adjunctive tool to distinguish between colonization and infection.

Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in a patient receiving chemotherapy for advanced prostatic cancer: a case report

Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP) in advanced prostatic cancer patients not receiving high-dose glucocorticoids has been reported rarely. A 73-year-old man underwent chemotherapy with cisplatin and docetaxel for advanced prostatic cancer. After nine cycles of chemotherapy, he developed a high fever, dry cough, shortness of breath, and severe fatigue, with rapid-onset hypoxic respiratory failure. Investigations demonstrated bilateral ground-glass opacities with positive bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) for Pneumocystis jirovecii by next-generation sequencings (NGS). The patient recovered well with treatment with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, caspofungin, and corticosteroids. This case report describes a case of PJP in a patient with a solid tumor who did not receive high-dose glucocorticoids and emphasizes the importance of early diagnosis and treatment.

Microscopic Imaging and Labeling Dataset for the Detection of Pneumocystis jirovecii Using Methenamine Silver Staining Method

Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia is one of the diseases that most affects immunocompromised patients today, and under certain circumstances, it can be fatal. On the other hand, more and more automatic tools based on artificial intelligence are required every day to help diagnose diseases and thus optimize the resources of the healthcare system. It is therefore important to develop techniques and mechanisms that enable early diagnosis. One of the most widely used techniques in diagnostic laboratories for the detection of its etiological agent, Pneumocystis jirovecii, is optical microscopy. Therefore, an image dataset of 29 different patients is presented in this work, which can be used to detect whether a patient is positive or negative for this fungi. These images were taken in at least four random positions on the specimen holder. The dataset consists of a total of 137 RGB images. Likewise, it contains realistic, annotated, and high-quality microscope images. In addition, we provide image segmentation and labeling that can also be used in numerous studies based on artificial intelligence implementation. The labeling was also validated by an expert, allowing it to be used as a reference in the training of automatic algorithms with supervised learning methods and thus to develop diagnostic assistance systems. Therefore, the dataset will open new opportunities for researchers working in image segmentation, detection, and classification problems related to Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia diagnosis.

Invasive Respiratory Fungal Infections in COVID-19 Critically Ill Patients

Patients with coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) often develop respiratory fungal infections. The most frequent diseases are the COVID-19 associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA), COVID-19 associated pulmonary mucormycosis (CAPM) and the Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP), the latter mostly found in patients with both COVID-19 and underlying HIV infection. Furthermore, co-infections due to less common mold pathogens have been also described. Respiratory fungal infections in critically ill patients are promoted by multiple risk factors, including epithelial damage caused by COVID-19 infection, mechanical ventilation and immunosuppression, mainly induced by corticosteroids and immunomodulators. In COVID-19 patients, a correct discrimination between fungal colonization and infection is challenging, further hampered by sampling difficulties and by the low reliability of diagnostic approaches, frequently needing an integration of clinical, radiological and microbiological features. Several antifungal drugs are currently available, but the development of new molecules with reduced toxicity, less drug-interactions and potentially active on difficult to treat strains, is highly warranted. Finally, the role of prophylaxis in certain COVID-19 populations is still controversial and must be further investigated.

Accuracy of Pneumocystis jirovecii Plasma Cell-Free DNA PCR for Noninvasive Diagnosis of Pneumocystis Pneumonia

Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii is a serious infection in immunocompromised hosts which requires prompt diagnosis and treatment. The recommended specimen for diagnosis of PCP is bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, which is invasive and may not be possible in unstable patients. The aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of noninvasive P. jirovecii plasma cell-free DNA (cfDNA) PCR using recently optimized preanalytical and analytical methods. Adult patients undergoing clinical testing for PCP with direct fluorescent antibody stain (DFA), respiratory PCR, and/or β-d-glucan were included in this study. Sensitivity and specificity P. jirovecii plasma cfDNA PCR was determined in PCP suspects categorized as proven and probable. A total of 149 patients were included in this study, of which 10 had proven and 27 had probable PCP. Most patients (95.9%, 143/149) were immunocompromised, including hematological malignancies (30.1%), bone marrow transplant (11.2%), solid organ transplantation (47.6%), and HIV/AIDS (4.2%). P. jirovecii plasma cfDNA PCR showed sensitivity and specificity of 100% (10/10; 95% confidence interval [CI], 69.2 to 100) and 93.4% (127/136; 95% CI, 87.8 to 96.9), and 48.6% (18/37; 95% CI, 31.9 to 65.6) and 99.1% (108/109; 95% CI, 94.9 to 100) in proven and proven/probable cases, respectively. P. jirovecii cell-free DNA PCR was similar in sensitivity but with substantially improved specificity over β-d-glucan (sensitivity, 60.0% [18/30; 95% CI, 40.6 to 77.3]); specificity, 66.7% [22/33; 95% CI, 48.2 to 82.0]) in patients with proven/probable PCP. Plasma cfDNA PCR offers a noninvasive testing option for early and accurate diagnosis of PCP, particularly in patients who cannot tolerate bronchoscopy.

Beta-D-Glucan in Patients with Haematological Malignancies

(1-3)-beta-D-glucan (BDG) is an almost panfungal marker (absent in zygomycetes and most cryptococci), which can be successfully used in screening and diagnostic testing in patients with haematological malignancies if its advantages and limitations are known. The aim of this review is to report the data, particularly from the last 5 years, on the use of BDG in haematological population. Published data report mainly on the performance of the Fungitell™ assay, although several others are currently available, and they vary in method and cut-off of positivity. The sensitivity of BDG for invasive fungal disease (IFD) in haematology patients seems lower than in other populations, possibly because of the type of IFD (lower sensitivity was found in case of aspergillosis compared to candidiasis and pneumocystosis) or the use of prophylaxis. The specificity of the test can be improved by using two consecutive positive assays and avoiding testing in the case of the concomitant presence of factors associated with false positive results. BDG should be used in combination with clinical assessment and other diagnostic tests, both radiological and mycological, to provide maximum information. Good performance of BDG in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) has been reported. BDG is a useful diagnostic method in haematology patients, particularly for pneumocystosis or initial diagnosis of invasive fungal infections.

A Negative (1,3)-β-D-Glucan Result Alone Is Not Sufficient to Rule Out a Diagnosis of Pneumocystis Pneumonia in Patients With Hematological Malignancies

Background: Serum (1,3)-β-D-glucan (BG) testing is increasingly being used in the diagnostic armamentarium for invasive fungal diseases. Given its high sensitivity, some studies suggest that a negative BG result contributes to rule out a diagnosis of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). However, recent reports described a suboptimal sensitivity in HIV-negative immunocompromised patients. In this study, we evaluated the performance of BG assay for PCP diagnosis in HIV-negative patients with diverse PCP risk factors. We also assessed the correlation between Pneumocystis jirovecii load in pulmonary samples and serum BG levels.

Methods: We retrospectively included HIV-negative patients with microscopically proven PCP and for whom a BG result was available. We also enrolled patients colonized by Pneumocystis as control group. Colonized patients were matched with PCP patients based on their underlying condition that exposed to PCP. Pulmonary fungal loads were determined by an in-house real-time PCR, and BG levels were measured by using the Fungitell® kit (Associates of Cape Cod, Inc.).

Results: Thirty-nine patients were included in each of the two groups. Thirty-four of 39 PCP patients and one of 39 colonized patient had a positive BG test, resulting in a sensitivity of 0.87 (95% CI: 0.73–0.94), a specificity of 0.97 (95% CI: 0.87–0.99), a positive predictive value of 0.97 (95% CI: 0.85–0.99), and a negative predictive value of 0.88 (95% CI: 0.75–0.95) for BG assay. Nonetheless, median BG level differed according to the underlying condition. Among the PCP group, the lowest median level of 211 pg/ml was observed in patients with hematological malignancy (HM) and differed significantly from that observed either in solid organ transplants (3,473 pg/ml) or in patients with autoimmune or inflammatory disorder (3,480 pg/ml). Indeed, the sensitivity of BG assay was estimated at 0.64 (95% CI: 0.35–0.85) in HM patients and was lower than the one observed in the whole PCP group. Furthermore, BG level and fungal burden correlated poorly among all PCP patients.

Conclusion: BG is not a reliable biomarker for ruling out PCP in HIV-negative patients with HM. Interpretation of a negative BG result should take into account, but not be limited to, the underlying condition predisposing to PCP.

Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing for the Diagnosis of Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia in Non-HIV-Infected Patients: A Retrospective Study

Introduction

This study aimed to evaluate the utility of metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) for the diagnosis of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP) in non-human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective study. A total of 60 non-human immunodeficiency virus-infected PJP patients and 134 patients diagnosed with non-PJP pneumonia were included. P. jirovecii and other co-pathogens identified by mNGS in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and/or blood samples were analyzed. Using clinical composite diagnosis as the reference standard, we compared the diagnostic performance of mNGS in PJP with conventional methods, including Gomori methenamine silver staining and serum (1,3)-β-d-glucan. Modifications of antimicrobial treatment for PJP patients after the report of mNGS results were also reviewed.

Results

mNGS reached a sensitivity of 100% in diagnosing PJP, which was remarkably higher than Gomori methenamine silver staining (25.0%) and serum (1,3)-β-d-glucan (67.4%). The specificity of mNGS (96.3%) significantly surpassed serum (1,3)-β-d-glucan (81.4%). Simultaneous mNGS of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and blood samples was performed in 21 out of 60 PJP patients, and it showed a concordance rate of 100% in detecting P. jirovecii. Besides, mNGS showed good performance in identifying co-pathogens of PJP patients, among which cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus were most commonly seen. Initial antimicrobial treatment was modified in 71.7% of PJP patients after the report of mNGS results.

Conclusion

mNGS is a useful diagnostic tool with good performance for the diagnosis of PJP and the detection of co-pathogens. mNGS of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and/or blood samples is suggested in patients with presumptive diagnosis of PJP. Blood samples may be a good alternative to bronchoalveolar lavage fluid for mNGS when bronchoscopic examination is not feasible.

Use of β-D-glucan in diagnosis of suspected Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in adults with HIV infection

OBJECTIVES

An elevated serum (1-3)-β-D-glucan (BDG) concentration has high sensitivity for a diagnosis of Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in people with HIV (PWH). At the current manufacturer-recommended positive threshold of 80 pg/mL (Fungitell), specificity for PCP is variable and other diagnostic tests are required. We evaluated the utility of serum BDG for diagnosis of suspected PCP in PWH at three inner-London hospitals to determine BDG concentrations for diagnosis and exclusion of PCP.

METHODS

From clinical case records, we abstracted demographic and clinical information and categorised patients as having confirmed or probable PCP, or an alternative diagnosis. We calculated sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value (PPV) of serum BDG concentrations >400 pg/mL and negative predictive value (NPV) of BDG <80 pg/mL.

RESULTS

76 patients were included; 29 had laboratory-confirmed PCP, 17 had probable PCP and 30 had an alternative diagnosis. Serum BDG >400 pg/mL had a sensitivity of 83%, specificity of 97% and PPV 97% for diagnosis of PCP; BDG <80 pg/mL had 100% NPV for exclusion of PCP.

CONCLUSIONS

In PWH with suspected PCP, BDG <80 pg/mL excludes a diagnosis of PCP, whereas BDG concentrations >400 pg/mL effectively confirm the diagnosis. Values 80-400 pg/mL should prompt additional diagnostic tests.

Diagnostic accuracy of the 1,3-beta-D-glucan test and lactate dehydrogenase for pneumocystis pneumonia in non-HIV patients

We evaluated the serum levels of (1–3)-beta-d-glucan (BG) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) as a tool to support pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) diagnostic procedures in non-HIV patients. We retrospectively collected non-HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) patients presenting clinical features of PCP between April 1st, 2013, and December 31st, 2018. A total of 225 included patients were tested for Pneumocystis jirovecii by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and methenamine silver staining. Based on different exclusion criteria, 179 cases were included in the BG group, and 196 cases were included in the LDH group. In each group, cases with positive immunofluorescence (IF) microscopy and PCR were considered proven PCP, while cases with only positive PCR were considered probable PCP. Fifty patients with negative IF and PCR results and proven to be non-PCP infection were chosen randomly as the control group. The cut-off levels of BG and LDH to distinguish non-PCP from probable PCP were 110 pg/mL and 296 U/L with 88% sensitivity and 86% specificity, and 66% sensitivity and 88% specificity, respectively. The cut-off levels of BG and LDH to distinguish non-PCP from proven PCP were 285.8 pg/mL and 379 U/L with 92% sensitivity and 96% specificity, and 85% sensitivity and 77% specificity, respectively. The cut-off levels of BG and LDH to distinguish non-PCP from proven/probable PCP were 144.1 pg/mL and 363 U/L with 90% sensitivity, 86% specificity and 80% sensitivity, 76% specificity respectively. BG and LDH are reliable indicators for detecting P. jirovecii infection in HIV-uninfected immunocompromised patients.

Pneumocystis and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Coinfection: A Case Report and Review of an Emerging Diagnostic Dilemma

We present a case of a critically ill patient with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) found to have acquired immune deficiency syndrome and Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP). Coronavirus disease 2019 and PCP co-occurrence is increasingly reported and may complicate diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. Patients with severe COVID-19 should be screened for underlying immunocompromise and coinfections should be considered.

Blood and Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing in Pneumonia

Background

Metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) has made a revolution in the mode of pathogen identification. We decided to explore the diagnostic value of blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) as mNGS samples in pneumonia.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed 467 mNGS results and assessed the diagnostic performance of paired blood and BALF mNGS in 39 patients with pneumonia.

Results

For bacteria and fungi, 16 patients had culture-confirmed pathogen diagnosis, while 13 patients were culture-negative. BALF mNGS was more sensitive than blood mNGS (81.3% vs. 25.0%, p=0.003), and the specificity in BALF and blood mNGS was not statistically significant different (76.9% vs. 84.6%, p=0.317). For 10 patients without culture test, treatments were changed in 2 patients. For viruses, Epstein-Barr virus was positive in blood mNGS in 9 patients. Human adenovirus was detected in both BALF and blood mNGS in 3 patients.

Conclusion

Our study suggests that BALF mNGS is more sensitive than blood mNGS in detecting bacteria and fungi, but blood also has advantages to identify the pathogens of pneumonia, especially for some viruses.

Diagnostic accuracy of serum (1-3)-β-D-glucan for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP) can be a life-threatening opportunistic infection in immunocompromised hosts. The diagnosis can be challenging, often requiring semi-invasive respiratory sampling. The serum 1,3-β-D-glucan (BDG) assay has been proposed as a minimally invasive test for the presumptive diagnosis of PJP.

METHOD

We carried out a systematic review and meta-analysis using articles in the English language published between January 1960 and September 2019. We estimated the pooled sensitivity and specificity of BDG testing using a bivariate random effects approach and compared test performance in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and non-HIV subgroups with meta-regression. Data from the pooled sensitivity and specificity were transformed to generate pre- and post-test probability curves.

RESULTS

Twenty-three studies were included. The pooled sensitivity and specificity of serum BDG testing for PJP were 91% (95%CI 87-94%) and 79% (95%CI 72-84%) respectively. The sensitivity in patients with HIV was better than in patients without (94%, 95%CI 91-96%) versus 86% (95%CI 78-91%) (p 0.02), with comparable specificity (83%, 95%CI 69-92% versus 83%, 95%CI 72-90%) (p 0.10). A negative BDG was only associated with a low post-test probability of PJP (≤5%) when the pre-test probability was low to intermediate (≤20% in non-HIV and ≤50% in HIV).

CONCLUSIONS

Among patients with a higher likelihood of PJP, the pooled sensitivity of BDG is insufficient to exclude infection. Similarly, for most cases, the pooled specificity is inadequate to diagnose PJP. Understanding the performance of BDG in the population being investigated is therefore essential to optimal clinical decision-making.