Simultaneous dermatophytosis and keratomycosis caused by Trichophyton interdigitale infection: a case report and literature review

Evaluation of the antimicrobial effects of Capsicum, Nigella sativa, Musa paradisiaca L., and Citrus limetta: A review

The extensive use of antibiotics and vaccines against microbial infections can result in long-term negative effects on humans and the environment. However, there are a number of plants that have antimicrobial effects against various disease-causing microbes such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi without negative side effects or harm to the environment. In this regard, four particular plants- Capsicum, Nigella sativa, Musa paradisiaca L., and Citrus limetta have been widely considered due to their excellent antimicrobial effect and ample availability. In this review, we discuss their antimicrobial effects due to the presence of thymoquinone, p-cymene, pinene, alkaloids, limonene, camphene, and melanin. These antimicrobial compounds disrupt the cell membrane of microbes, inhibit cellular division, and form biofilm in bacterial species, eventually reducing the number of microbes. Extraction of these compounds from the respective plants is carried out by different methods such as soxhlet, hydro-distillation, liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), solid-phase extraction (SPE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), pulsed electric field (PEF), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), and high-voltage electrical discharge. Suitable selection of the extraction technique highly depends upon the associated advantages and disadvantages. In order to aid future study in this field, this review paper summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of each of these approaches. Additionally, the discussion covers how antimicrobial agents destroy harmful bacteria. Thus, this review offers in-depth knowledge to researchers on the antibacterial properties of Capsicum, Nigella sativa, Musa paradisiaca L. peels, and Citrus limetta.

Therapeutic Textiles Functionalized with Keratin-Based Particles Encapsulating Terbinafine for the Treatment of Onychomycosis

Onychomycosis is the most common nail fungal infection worldwide. There are several therapy options available for onychomycosis, such as oral antifungals, topicals, and physical treatments. Terbinafine is in the frontline for the treatment of onychomycosis; however, several adverse effects are associated to its oral administration. In this work, innovative keratin-based carriers encapsulating terbinafine were designed to overcome the drawbacks related to the use this drug. Therapeutic textiles functionalized with keratin-based particles (100% keratin; 80% keratin/20% keratin-PEG) encapsulating terbinafine were developed. The controlled release of terbinafine from the functionalized textiles was evaluated against different mimetic biologic solutions (PBS buffer-pH = 7.4, micellar solution and acidic sweat solution-pH = 4.3). The modification of keratin with polyethylene glycol (PEG) moieties favored the release of terbinafine at the end of 48 h for all the solution conditions. When the activity of functionalized textiles was tested against Trichophyton rubrum, a differentiated inhibition was observed. Textiles functionalized with 80% keratin/20% keratin-PEG encapsulating terbinafine showed a 2-fold inhibition halo compared with the textiles containing 100% keratin-encapsulating terbinafine. No activity was observed for the textiles functionalized with keratin-based particles without terbinafine. The systems herein developed revealed therapeutic potential towards nail fungal infections, taking advantage of keratin-based particles affinity to keratin structures and of the keratinase activity of T. rubrum.

Good Visual Outcome in Post Traumatic Exogenous Endophthalmitis Caused by Trichophyton Species

Trichophyton species is a dermatophytic fungus commonly found in the skin, nails, hair, and other organic matters such as palm trees and soil. We report a rare case of a 23-year-old man who had a penetrating injury to the eye from the leaves of a palm tree and subsequently developed exogenous endophthalmitis. Culture from the vitreous tap revealed Trichophyton sp as the causative organism. Early vitrectomy and adequate intravitreal injection of amphotericin B resulted in good visual outcomes in an otherwise blinding condition. This is the first reported case of exogenous endophthalmitis secondary to Trichophyton species. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment may help improve visual outcomes.

Structure, Application, and Biochemistry of Microbial Keratinases

Keratinases belong to a class of proteases that are able to degrade keratins into amino acids. Microbial keratinases play important roles in turning keratin-containing wastes into value-added products by participating in the degradation of keratin. Keratin is found in human and animal hard tissues, and its complicated structures make it resistant to degradation by common proteases. Although breaking disulfide bonds are involved in keratin degradation, keratinase is responsible for the cleavage of peptides, making it attractive in pharmaceutical and feather industries. Keratinase can serve as an important tool to convert keratin-rich wastes such as feathers from poultry industry into diverse products applicable to many fields. Despite of some progress made in isolating keratinase-producing microorganisms, structural studies of keratinases, and biochemical characterization of these enzymes, effort is still required to expand the biotechnological application of keratinase in diverse fields by identifying more keratinases, understanding the mechanism of action and constructing more active enzymes through molecular biology and protein engineering. Herein, this review covers structures, applications, biochemistry of microbial keratinases, and strategies to improve its efficiency in keratin degradation.

An overview of research of essential oils by self-organizing maps: A novel approach for meta-analysis study

Essential oils (EOs) are commercially important products, sources of compounds with antioxidant and antimicrobial activities considered indispensable for several fields, such as the food industry, cosmetics, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, sanitary and agricultural industries. In this context, this systematic review and meta-analysis, a novel approach will be presented using chemometric tools to verify and recognize patterns of antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal activities of EOs according to their geographic, botanical, chemical, and microbiological distribution. Scientific papers were selected following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses statement flow diagram, and the data were evaluated by the self-organizing map and hierarchical cluster analysis. Overall, this novel approach allowed us to draw an overview of antioxidants and antimicrobials activities of EOs reported in 2019, through 585 articles evaluated, obtaining a dataset with more than 10,000 data, distributed in more than 80 countries, 290 plant genera, 150 chemical compounds, 30 genera of bacteria, and 10 genera of fungi. The networks for geographic, botanical, chemical, and microbiological distribution indicated that Brazil, Asia, the botanical genus Thymus, species Thymus vulgaris L. "thyme," the Lamiaceae family, limonene, and the oxygenated monoterpene class were the most representative in the dataset, while the species Escherichia coli and Candida albicans were the most used to assess the antimicrobial activity of EOs. This work can be seen as a guide for the processing of metadata using a novel approach with non-conventional statistical methods. However, this preliminary approach with EOs can be extended to other sources or areas of food science.

Comparative Investigation of Composition, Antifungal, and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of the Essential Oil from Three Industrial Hemp Varieties from Italian Cultivation

Industrial hemp is characterized by a huge amount of by-products, such as inflorescences, that may represent high-quality sources of biomolecules with pharmaceutical interest. In the present study, we have evaluated the phytochemical profile, including terpene and terpenophenolic compounds, of the essential oils (EOs) of Futura 75, Carmagnola selezionata and Eletta campana hemp varieties. The EOs were also tested for antifungal properties toward Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton rubrum, Arthroderma crocatum, Arthroderma quadrifidum, Arthroderma gypseum, Arthroderma curreyi, and Arthroderma insingulare. In parallel, we investigated the inhibitory effects of the EOs against tyrosinase, and the production of prostaglandin E₂ in isolated mouse skin exposed to hydrogen peroxide. In human H1299 lung adenocarcinoma cells, we also evaluated the influence of the EOs on the gene expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), which are involved in SARS-CoV-2 entry in human host. E-caryophyllene and α-pinene were the prominent terpenes in the EOs, whereas the cannabidiolic acid was the terpenophenol present at higher concentration. The EOs inhibited the growth of all tested dermatophytes species. In isolated skin specimens, EOs prevented the hydrogen-peroxide-induced synthesis of prostaglandin E₂, consistent with the intrinsic antityrosinase activity. Finally, in H1299 cells, all tested EOs reduced the gene expression of ACE-2 and TMPRSS2, as well. Therefore, the present findings highlight the rationale for the use of the present EOs against infectious diseases.

Pharmacological Potential and Chemical Characterization of Bridelia ferruginea Benth.-A Native Tropical African Medicinal Plant

To avail the possible pharmacological actions of Brideliaferruginea Benth., the present investigation was designed to quantitatively analyze the total flavonoid and phenolic contents and assess the various antioxidant and enzyme inhibition properties of leaf and stem bark extracts (ethyl acetate, water and methanolic) of B. ferruginea. Anti-proliferative effect was also investigated against human colon cancer cells (HCT116) as well as the antimicrobial potential against multiple bacterial and fungal (yeasts and dermatophytes) strains. The methanolic and water extracts of the stem bark demonstrated the highest phenolic content (193.58 ± 0.98 and 187.84 ± 1.88 mg/g, respectively), while the leaf extracts showed comparatively higher flavonoid contents (24.37-42.31 mg/g). Overall, the methanolic extracts were found to possess the most significant antioxidant potency. Compared to the other extracts, methanolic extracts of the B. ferruginea were revealed to be most potent inhibitors of acetyl- and butyryl-cholinesterases, tyrosinase α-amylase, except α-glucosidase. Only the ethyl acetate extracts were found to inhibit glucosidase. Additionally, the stem bark methanolic extract also showed potent inhibitory activity against E. coli and gram-positive bacteria (MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration): 2.48-62.99 µg/mL), as well as all the tested fungi (MIC: 4.96-62.99 µg/mL). In conclusion, B. ferruginea can be regarded as a promising source of bioactive compounds displaying multifunctional pharmacological activities and thus is a potential candidate for further investigations in the endeavor to develop botanical formulations for pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries.

Optimizing the structure of (salicylideneamino)benzoic acids: Towards selective antifungal and anti-staphylococcal agents

An increasing resistance of human pathogenic bacteria and fungi has become a global health problem. Based on previous reports of 4-(salicylideneamino)benzoic acids, we designed, synthesised and evaluated their me-too analogues as potential antimicrobial agents. Forty imines derived from substituted salicylaldehydes and aminobenzoic acids, 4-aminobenzoic acid esters and 4-amino-N-phenylbenzamide were designed using molecular hybridization and prodrug strategies. The target compounds were synthesized with high yields and characterized by spectral methods. They were investigated against a panel of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, mycobacteria, yeasts and moulds. The most active imines were tested to determine their cytotoxicity and selectivity in HepG2 cells. Dihalogenosalicylaldehydes-based derivatives showed potent broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (minimum inhibitory concentrations, MIC, from 7.81 µM) and Enterococcus faecalis (MIC of ≥15.62 µM), yeasts (MIC from 7.81 µM) and Trichophyton interdigitale mould (MIC of ≥3.90 µM). Methyl 4-[(2-hydroxy-3,5-diiodobenzylidene)amino]benzoate 4h exhibited excellent in vitro activity along with low toxicity to mammalian cells. This compound is selective for staphylococci, Candida spp. and Trichophyton interdigitale. In addition, this imine was evaluated as a potential inhibitor of Gram-positive biofilms. The successful approach used provided some promising derivatives with more advantageous properties than the parent 4-(salicylideneamino)benzoic acids.

Metabolomic Profile and Antioxidant/Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Industrial Hemp Water Extract in Fibroblasts, Keratinocytes and Isolated Mouse Skin Specimens

Industrial hemp is a multiuse crop whose phytocomplex includes terpenophenolics and flavonoids. In the present study, the phenolic and terpenophenolic compounds were assayed in the water extract of the hemp variety Futura 75. Protective effects were also investigated in human fibroblast and keratinocytes and isolate mouse skin specimens, which were exposed to hydrogen peroxide and/or to the extract (1-500 µg/mL). The results of phytochemical analysis suggested the cannabidiol, cannabidiolic acid and rutin as the prominent phytocompounds. In the in vitro system represented by human keratinocytes and fibroblasts, the hemp extract was found to be able to protect cells from cytotoxicity and apoptosis induced by oxidative stress. Moreover, modulatory effects on IL-6, a key mediator in skin proliferation, were found. In isolated rat skin, the extract reduced hydrogen peroxide-induced l-dopa turnover, prostaglandin-E2 production and the ratio kynurenine/tryptpophan, thus corroborating anti-inflammatory/antioxidant effects. The in silico docking studies also highlighted the putative interactions between cannabidiol, cannabidiolic acid and rutin with tyrosinase and indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase, involved in l-dopa turnover and tryptophan conversion in kynurenine, respectively. In conclusion, the present findings showed the efficacy of hemp water extract as a skin protective agent. This could be partly related to the extract content in cannabidiol, cannabidiolic acid and rutin.

Epidemiology and Diagnostic Perspectives of Dermatophytoses

Dermatophytoses affect about 25% of the world population, and the filamentous fungus Trichophyton rubrum is the main causative agent of this group of diseases. Dermatomycoses are caused by pathogenic fungi that generally trigger superficial infections and that feed on keratinized substrates such as skin, hair, and nails. However, there are an increasing number of reports describing dermatophytes that invade deep layers such as the dermis and hypodermis and that can cause deep infections in diabetic and immunocompromised patients, as well as in individuals with immunodeficiency. Despite the high incidence and importance of dermatophytes in clinical mycology, the diagnosis of this type of infection is not always accurate. The conventional methods most commonly used for mycological diagnosis are based on the identification of microbiological and biochemical features. However, in view of the limitations of these conventional methods, molecular diagnostic techniques are increasingly being used because of their higher sensitivity, specificity and rapidity and have become more accessible. The most widely used molecular techniques are conventional PCR, quantitative PCR, multiplex PCR, nested, PCR, PCR-RFLP, and PCR-ELISA. Another promising technique for the identification of microorganisms is the analysis of protein profiles by MALDI-TOF MS. Molecular techniques are promising but it is necessary to improve the quality and availability of the information in genomic and proteomic databases in order to streamline the use of bioinformatics in the identification of dermatophytes of clinical interest.

Pharmacological Properties and Chemical Profiles of Passiflora foetida L. Extracts: Novel Insights for Pharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals

In the present study, Passiflora foetida extracts characterized by different polarities were studied for their phytochemical profile, enzyme inhibitory, and antioxidant potentials. In silico, in vitro and ex vivo studies were also carried out on methanol and water extracts for predicting pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. In this regard, neuronal HypoE22 cells, isolated mouse skin tissues, and pathogen dermatophytes strains were exposed to extracts. Emphasis was given to the preventing effects induced by the extracts on hydrogen peroxide-induced alterations of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), l-dopa, and serotonin. Chemical analysis revealed the presence of similar compounds in infusion and methanolic extracts. The ex vivo studies also showed protective skin properties by P. foetida water and methanol extracts, as evidenced by the decrease of hydrogen peroxide-induced PGE2 level. Additionally, the blunting effects on hydrogen peroxide-induced l-dopa levels are consistent with the anti-tyrosinase effect exerted by both extracts. In silico studies demonstrated the affinity of extracts’ phytochemicals, namely apigenin, chrysoeriol, loliolide, luteolin, quercetin, and vitexin, towards cyclo-oxygenase-2 and tyrosinase. Finally, microbiological tests demonstrated the efficacy of P. foetida methanol and water extracts as anti-mycotic agents against Trichophyton and Arthroderma species, involved in skin inflammation. Hence, P. foetida L. extracts could represent potential sources of pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals.

Population differentiation, antifungal susceptibility, and host range of Trichophyton mentagrophytes isolates causing recalcitrant infections in humans and animals

The major problems in determining the causative factors of the high prevalence of dermatophytoses include the lack of a well-standardized antifungal susceptibility testing method, the low consistency of in vitro and clinical minimal inhibitory concentration values, the high genomic diversity of the population, and the unclear mechanism of pathogenicity. These factors are of particular importance when the disease is recalcitrant and relapses. Herein, we identified and characterized Trichophyton mentagrophytes isolates obtained from therapy-resistant cases in humans and animals. We used genomic diversity analysis of 17 human and 27 animal clinical isolates with the MP-PCR technique, determined their phenotypic enzymatic activity and host range, and performed antifungal susceptibility testing to currently available antifungal drugs from various chemical groups. Genomic diversity values of 35.3% and 33.3% were obtained for clinical isolates from humans and animals, respectively, yet without any relationship to the host species or antifungal drug to which resistance in therapy was revealed. The highest activity of keratinase enzymes was recorded for fox, guinea pig, and human hairs. These hosts can be considered as the main species in the host range of these isolates. A phenyl morpholine derivative, i.e. amorolfine, exhibited superior activity against strains obtained from both humans and animals with the lowest MIC₅₀. Interestingly, high compliance of terbinafine in vitro resistance with clinical problems in the treatment with this substance was shown as well. The high resistance of dermatophytes to drugs is the main cause of the recalcitrance of the infection, whereas the other features of the fungus are less important.

Water Extract from Inflorescences of Industrial Hemp Futura 75 Variety as a Source of Anti-Inflammatory, Anti-Proliferative and Antimycotic Agents: Results from In Silico, In Vitro and Ex Vivo Studies

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa) is traditionally cultivated as a valuable source of fibers and nutrients. Multiple studies also demonstrated antimicrobial, anti-proliferative, phytotoxic and insecticide effects of the essential oil from hemp female inflorescences. On the other side, only a few studies explored the potential pharmacological application of polar extracts from inflorescences. In the present study, we investigated the water extract from inflorescences of industrial hemp Futura 75 variety, from phytochemical and pharmacological point of view. The water extract was assayed for phenolic compound content, radical scavenger/reducing, chelating and anti-tyrosinase effects. Through an ex vivo model of toxicity induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on isolated rat colon and liver, we explored the extract effects on serotonin, dopamine and kynurenine pathways and the production of prostaglandin (PG)E₂. Anti-proliferative effects were also evaluated against human colon cancer HCT116 cell line. Additionally, antimycotic effects were investigated against Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton interdigitale, Microsporum gypseum. Finally, in silico studies, including bioinformatics, network pharmacology and docking approaches were conducted in order to predict the putative targets underlying the observed pharmacological and microbiological effects. Futura 75 water extract was able to blunt LPS-induced reduction of serotonin and increase of dopamine and kynurenine turnover, in rat colon. Additionally, the reduction of PGE₂ levels was observed in both colon and liver specimens, as well. The extract inhibited the HCT116 cell viability, the growth of T. rubrum and T. interdigitale and the activity of tyrosinase, in vitro, whereas in silico studies highlighting the inhibitions of cyclooxygenase-1 (induced by carvacrol), carbonic anhydrase IX (induced by chlorogenic acid and gallic acid) and lanosterol 14-α-demethylase (induced by rutin) further support the observed pharmacological and antimycotic effects. The present findings suggest female inflorescences from industrial hemp as high quality by-products, thus representing promising sources of nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals against inflammatory and infectious diseases.