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Zingales B, Macedo AM. Fifteen Years after the Definition of Trypanosoma cruzi DTUs: What Have We Learned? Life (Basel) 2023; 13:2339. [PMID: 38137940 PMCID: PMC10744745 DOI: 10.3390/life13122339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan causative of Chagas disease (ChD), exhibits striking genetic and phenotypic intraspecific diversity, along with ecoepidemiological complexity. Human-pathogen interactions lead to distinct clinical presentations of ChD. In 2009, an international consensus classified T. cruzi strains into six discrete typing units (DTUs), TcI to TcVI, later including TcBat, and proposed reproducible genotyping schemes for DTU identification. This article aims to review the impact of classifying T. cruzi strains into DTUs on our understanding of biological, ecoepidemiological, and pathogenic aspects of T. cruzi. We will explore the likely origin of DTUs and the intrinsic characteristics of each group of strains concerning genome organization, genomics, and susceptibility to drugs used in ChD treatment. We will also provide an overview of the association of DTUs with mammalian reservoirs, and summarize the geographic distribution, and the clinical implications, of prevalent specific DTUs in ChD patients. Throughout this review, we will emphasize the crucial roles of both parasite and human genetics in defining ChD pathogenesis and chemotherapy outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Zingales
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Andréa M. Macedo
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil;
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Kiehl WM, Hodo CL, Hamer GL, Hamer SA, Wilkerson GK. Exclusion of Horizontal and Vertical Transmission as Major Sources of Trypanosoma Cruzi Infections in a Breeding Colony of Rhesus Macaques ( Macaca Mulatta). Comp Med 2023; 73:229-241. [PMID: 37268411 PMCID: PMC10290485 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-23-000005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The vector-borne protozoal parasite Trypanosoma cruzi causes Chagas disease in humans and animals. This parasite is endemic to the southern United States where outdoor-housed NHP at biomedical facilities are at risk of infection. In addi- tion to the direct morbidity caused by T. cruzi, infected animals are of limited biomedical research use because infections can produce confounding pathophysiologic changes even in animals with no clinical disease. In part due to concerns for direct T. cruzi transmission between animals, infected NHP at some institutions have been culled, removed, or otherwise isolated from uninfected animal populations. However, data that document horizontal or vertical transmission in captive NHP in the United States are not available. To evaluate the potential for inter-animal transmission and to identify environmental factors that affect the distribution of new infections in NHPs, we conducted a retrospective epidemiologic study of a rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta ) breeding colony in south Texas. We used archived biologic samples and husbandry records to identify the time and location of macaque seroconversion. These data were used to perform a spatial analysis of how geographic location and animal associations affected the spread of disease and to infer the importance of horizontal or vertical routes of transmission. The majority of T. cruzi infections were spatially clustered, suggesting that environmental factors promoted vector exposure in various areas of the facility. Although we cannot not rule out horizontal transmission, our data suggest that horizontal transmission was not a critical route for spread for the disease. Vertical transmission was not a contributing factor in this colony. In conclusion, our findings suggest that local triatome vectors were the major source of T. cruzi infections in captive macaques in our colony. Therefore, limiting contact with vectors, rather than segregation of infected macaques, is a key strategy for disease prevention at institutions that house macaques outdoors in the southern United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Whitney M Kiehl
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Carolyn L Hodo
- MD Anderson Cancer Center, Michale E Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, Bastrop, Texas; Departments of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences
| | | | | | - Gregory K Wilkerson
- MD Anderson Cancer Center, Michale E Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, Bastrop, Texas; Department of Clinal Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina;,
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San Francisco J, Astudillo C, Vega JL, Catalán A, Gutiérrez B, Araya JE, Zailberger A, Marina A, García C, Sanchez N, Osuna A, Vilchez S, Ramírez MI, Macedo J, Feijoli VS, Palmisano G, González J. Trypanosoma cruzi pathogenicity involves virulence factor expression and upregulation of bioenergetic and biosynthetic pathways. Virulence 2022; 13:1827-1848. [PMID: 36284085 PMCID: PMC9601562 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2022.2132776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular repertoire of Trypanosoma cruzi effects its virulence and impacts the clinical course of the resulting Chagas disease. This study aimed to determine the mechanism underlying the pathogenicity of T. cruzi. Two T. cruzi cell lines (C8C3hvir and C8C3lvir), obtained from the clone H510 C8C3 and exhibiting different virulence phenotypes, were used to evaluate the parasite's infectivity in mice. The organ parasite load was analysed by qPCR. The proteomes of both T. cruzi cell lines were compared using nLC-MS/MS. Cruzipain (Czp), complement regulatory protein (CRP), trans-sialidase (TS), Tc-85, and sialylated epitope expression levels were evaluated by immunoblotting. High-virulence C8C3hvir was highly infectious in mice and demonstrated three to five times higher infectivity in mouse myocardial cells than low-virulence C8C3lvir. qPCR revealed higher parasite loads in organs of acute as well as chronically C8C3hvir-infected mice than in those of C8C3lvir-infected mice. Comparative quantitative proteomics revealed that 390 of 1547 identified proteins were differentially regulated in C8C3hvir with respect to C8C3lvir. Amongst these, 174 proteins were upregulated in C8C3hvir and 216 were downregulated in C8C3lvir. The upregulated proteins in C8C3hvir were associated with the tricarboxylic acid cycle, ribosomal proteins, and redoxins. Higher levels of Czp, CRP, TS, Tc-85, and sialylated epitopes were expressed in C8C3hvir than in C8C3lvir. Thus, T. cruzi virulence may be related to virulence factor expression as well as upregulation of bioenergetic and biosynthetic pathways proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan San Francisco
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Constanza Astudillo
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - José Luis Vega
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile,Laboratory of Gap Junction Proteins and Parasitic Disease, Instituto Antofagasta, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile,Research Center in Immunology and Biomedical Biotechnology of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Alejandro Catalán
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Bessy Gutiérrez
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Jorge E Araya
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | | | - Anabel Marina
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos García
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria Sanchez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Osuna
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Susana Vilchez
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Marcel I Ramírez
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Sistemática de Trypanosomatides, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fiocruz, Parana, Brazil
| | - Janaina Macedo
- Department of Parasitology, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Jorge González
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Medical Technology Department, University of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile,Research Center in Immunology and Biomedical Biotechnology of Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile,Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Sistemática de Trypanosomatides, Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Antofagasta, Chile,CONTACT Jorge González
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Molecular characterization of Trypanosoma cruzi DTUs of the triatomine species in a Chagas disease endemic area. J Parasit Dis 2022; 46:64-71. [PMID: 35299926 PMCID: PMC8901897 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-021-01418-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease, a neglected tropical infection with great public health importance. This protozoan has triatomine insects as vector but may also be transmitted through blood transfusion, organ transplants, ingestion of contaminated food, or congenitally. It has a heterogeneous population classified into Discrete Typing Units (DTUs), TcI-TcVI and TcBat. The aim of this study was to molecularly characterize the DTUs of T. cruzi in triatomines from a Chagas disease endemic area in Northeastern Brazil. Triatomines were collected and the gut content was microscopically analyzed to investigate the presence of trypanosomatid flagellates. In addition, digestive tracts of some specimens were dissected and molecularly analyzed through PCR for Trypanosoma spp. and sequencing. PCR positive samples were further submitted to a multiplex PCR for DTUs of T. cruzi. A total of 117 triatomines were collected, 93.16% being in intradomicile and 6.84% in peridomicile environments. Insects were identified as Panstrongylus lutzi (37.60%), Triatoma pseudomaculata (26.50%), Triatoma brasiliensis (23.08%) and Panstrongylus megistus (12.82%). The specimens herein analyzed presented infection rates by T. cruzi of 5.49% and 12.09% in parasitological and molecular examinations, respectively. Multiplex PCR screening revealed 70.59% of the TcI genotype, detected in all triatomine species identified in this study and 29.41% of the DTU TcIII/TcIV detected in P. megistus and P. lutzi. T. cruzi infect triatomines in intradomicile and peridomicile environments, which brings attention to the risk of human infections and to the importance of the implementation of surveillance and entomological control actions.
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Silpa MAC, Rodriguez F, Reavill D, Biswell E, Waldrup K, Maldonado RA. Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) with severe focally extensive suppurative myocarditis. J Exot Pet Med 2021. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jepm.2021.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Valença-Barbosa C, Finamore-Araujo P, Moreira OC, Vergara-Meza JG, Alvarez MVN, Nascimento JR, Borges-Veloso A, Viana MC, Lilioso M, Miguel DC, Gadelha FR, Teixeira MMG, Almeida CE. Genotypic Trypanosoma cruzi distribution and parasite load differ ecotypically and according to parasite genotypes in Triatoma brasiliensis from endemic and outbreak areas in Northeastern Brazil. Acta Trop 2021; 222:106054. [PMID: 34273309 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2021.106054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the Trypanosoma cruzi genotypes and their relationship with parasitic load in distinct geographic and ecotypic populations of Triatoma brasiliensis in two sites, including one where a Chagas disease (ChD) outbreak occurred in Rio Grande do Norte state, Brazil. Triatomine captures were performed in peridomestic and sylvatic ecotopes in two municipalities: Marcelino Vieira - affected by the outbreak; and Currais Novos - where high pressure of peridomestic triatomine infestation after insecticide spraying have been reported. The kDNA-PCR was used to select 124 T. cruzi positive triatomine samples, of which 117 were successfully genotyped by fluorescent fragment length barcoding (FFLB). Moreover, the T. cruzi load quantification was performed using a multiplex TaqMan qPCR. Our findings showed a clear ecotypic segregation between TcI and TcII harboured by T. brasiliensis (p<0.001). Although no genotypes were ecotypically exclusive, TcI was predominant in peridomestic ecotopes (86%). In general, T. brasiliensis from Rio Grande do Norte had a higher T. cruzi load varying from 3.94 to 7.66 x 106T. cruzi per insect. Additionally, TcII (median value=299,504 T. cruzi/intestine unit equivalents) had more than twice (p=0.1) the parasite load of TcI (median value=149,077 T. cruzi/intestine unit equivalents), which can be attributed to a more ancient co-evolution with T. brasiliensis. The higher prevalence of TcII in the sylvatic T. brasiliensis (70%) could be associated with a more diversified source of bloodmeals for wild insect populations. Either TcI or TcII may have been responsible for the ChD outbreak that occurred in the city of Marcelino Vieira. On the other hand, a smaller portion of T. brasiliensis was infected by TcIII (3%) in the peridomicile, in addition to T. rangeli genotype A (1%), often found in mixed infections. Our results highlight the need of understanding the patterns of T. cruzi genotype´s development and circulation in insect vectors and reservoirs as a mode of tracking situations of epidemiologic importance, as the ChD outbreak recently recorded for Northeastern Brazil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Valença-Barbosa
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade de Campinas - UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil; Grupo Triatomíneos, Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - Paula Finamore-Araujo
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Doenças Endêmicas, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz/Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Otacilio C Moreira
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Doenças Endêmicas, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz/Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - André Borges-Veloso
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade de Campinas - UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil; Grupo Triatomíneos, Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Maurício Lilioso
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade de Campinas - UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Carlos Eduardo Almeida
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade de Campinas - UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil; Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brazil
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Benaim G, Paniz-Mondolfi AE, Sordillo EM. The Rationale for Use of Amiodarone and its Derivatives for the Treatment of Chagas' Disease and Leishmaniasis. Curr Pharm Des 2021; 27:1825-1833. [PMID: 32988342 DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200928161403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The repurposing or repositioning of previously-approved drugs has become an accepted strategy for the expansion of the pharmacopeia for neglected diseases. Accordingly, amiodarone, an inexpensive and extensively- used class III antiarrhythmic has been proposed as a treatment for Chagas' disease and leishmaniasis. Amiodarone has a potent trypanocidal and leishmanicidal action, mainly acting through the disruption of parasite intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis, which is a recognized target of different drugs that have activity against trypanosomatids. Amiodarone collapses the mitochondrial electrochemical potential (Δφm) and induces the rapid alkalinization of parasite acidocalcisomes, driving a large increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration. Amiodarone also inhibits oxidosqualene cyclase activity, a key enzyme in the ergosterol synthesis pathway that is essential for trypanosomatid survival. In combination, these three effects lead to parasite death. Dronedarone, a drug synthesized to minimize some of the adverse effects of amiodarone, displays trypanocidal and leishmanicidal activity through the same mechanisms, but curiously, being more potent on Leishmaniasis than its predecessor. In vitro studies suggest that other recently-synthesized benzofuran derivatives can act through the same mechanisms, and produce similar effects on different trypanosomatid species. Recently, the combination of amiodarone and itraconazole has been used successfully to treat 121 dogs naturally-infected by T. cruzi, strongly supporting the potential therapeutic use of this combination against human trypanosomatid infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Benaim
- Instituto de Estudios Avanzados (IDEA) , Caracas, Venezuela
| | | | - Emilia Mia Sordillo
- Department of Pathology, Molecular, and Cell-Based Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, United States
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