Surgical site infection and associated factors among women underwent cesarean delivery in Debretabor General Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia: hospital based cross sectional study

Surgical site infections in caesarean wounds

The increasing incidence of surgical site infections (SSIs) following caesarean sections highlights the necessity for updated protocols that address risk factors throughout the preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative stages. Negative Pressure Wound Therapy (NPWT) and hydrocolloid dressings have demonstrated potential for improving wound management and reducing complications, particularly by enhancing dressing integrity. Nevertheless, the application of NPWT requires careful consideration and adherence to local trust guidelines to ensure both its safety and efficacy.

Incidence of Surgical Site Infection Following Cesarean Section and Its Associated Factors in a Hospital of the Eastern Region, Saudi Arabia: A Retrospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Surgical site infections (SSIs) following cesarean sections (CS) pose significant challenges in healthcare settings, prompting this five-year investigation in a Qatif Area general hospital. The study aimed to delineate nuances in SSI occurrences, assess yearly variations, and identify associated risk factors impacting SSI rates among CS patients.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of 1584 cesarean sections conducted over five years was undertaken, and the reported SSI cases were examined to calculate the overall and yearly SSI rates. The impact of potential risk factors such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and postoperative antibiotic courses on SSI occurrence was examined.

RESULTS

The study revealed an overall SC rate of 15.4%. The SSI rate following CS was 4.7% (N = 74), with variations across years ranging from 2.2% in 2020 to a peak of 6.7% in 2022. Notably, 2021 and 2022 demonstrated increased SSI rates compared to prior years. Diabetes mellitus and a surgery duration of more than one hour exhibited a substantial association with SSI occurrence, (OR = 10.76, p = 0.038) and (OR = 3.54, p = 0.002), respectively, signifying independent risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

The study underscores the dynamic nature of SSI rates following CS, highlighting an increasing trend in recent years. All cases were managed with the optimal hospital care. Diabetes mellitus and a surgery duration of more than one hour emerged as prominent independent risk factors for SSI, warranting heightened vigilance and tailored preventive measures in this subset of patients.

The incidence of surgical site infection and its predictors among women delivered via cesarean sections in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Although surgical wound infection remains a serious issue worldwide, the disease burden is greater in developing countries, including Ethiopia. Even though there were primary studies conducted at district levels in Ethiopia, there is little evidence about the pooled incidence of surgical site infections at the national level. Thus, this systematic review and meta-analysis determined the pooled incidence of surgical site infection and its associated factors among cesarean-delivered women in Ethiopia.

Methods

We searched PubMed, CINAHL, African Journals Online, Google Scholar, and higher educational institutional repositories. A random-effects model was used to estimate the pooled effect size with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Funnel plot and egger tests were computed to determine the existence of publication bias. A subgroup analysis was carried out.

Results

Twenty-three studies were included in the final analysis. The pooled incidence of surgical site infection among women delivered via cesarean section was 12.32% (95% CI: 8.96-16.11%). Rural residence (AOR = 2.51, 95% CI: 1.15-3.87), membrane rupture (AOR = 2.04, 95% CI: 1.24-2.85), chorioammionitis (AOR = 4.13, 95% CI: 1.45-6.8), general anesthesia (AOR = 1.99, 95% CI: 1.22-2.75), post-operative Hgb level less than 11 mg/dL (AOR = 3.25, 95% CI: 1.54-4.96) and membrane rupture greater or equal to 12 h (AOR = 3.93, 95% CI: 1.93-5.92) were independent risk factors for surgical site infections.

Conclusion

More than one in 10 women delivered via cesarean section developed surgical site infections in Ethiopia. Women living in rural areas and those with a membrane rupture, chorioammionitis, or anemia should be given special attention. General anesthesia should not be a mandatory procedure.

Surgical site infection following cesarean section and its predictors in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Worldwide, surgery related deaths within 30 days of the procedure accounts the third contributor among all causes of deaths, with an estimated 4.2 million people annually and half of these deaths occur in low and middle income countries.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the pooled prevalence of surgical site infection following cesarean section and its predictors in Ethiopia.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted by using PRISMA guideline. An appropriate and comprehensive search of PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, Google Scholar, HINARI and Scopus was done. This SRMA included all articles conducted in all regional state of Ethiopia reporting the prevalence/proportion/incidence of SSI after cesarean section and/or associated factors. All observational study designs were included in this SRMA. Articles which lack our outcome of interest: SSI following cesarean section and its predictors were excluded from this SRMA. The I2 statistic was used to quantify heterogeneity across studies. Funnel plot asymmetry and Egger's tests were used to check for publication bias. A random effect model was used to estimate the pooled prevalence of SSI. Adjusted Odds Ratio (OR) with 95% Confidence Interval (CI) was also considered to determine the association of identified variables with SSI. Statistical analysis was conducted using STATA version 17 software.

RESULT

Initially 6334 studies were identified and finally 19 studies were found eligible for the analysis. Studies with a score of 7 and above were included for the final systematic review and meta-analysis. The review was comprised of 14 cross sectional studies, 4 cohort and one case control studies. The pooled estimate of SSI in Ethiopia was 11.13% (95%CI, 9.29-12.97%). Prolonged labor (AOR = 3.16, 95% CI; (2.14-4.68)), chorioamnionitis (AOR = 4.26, 95% CI; (1.99-8.91)), prolonged PROM (AOR = 3.80, 95% CI; (2.51-5.62)), repeated vaginal examination (AOR = 3.80, 95% CI; (2.45-5.88)), decreased hemoglobin level (AOR = 4.57, 95%CI; (3.16-6.60)), vertical skin incision (AOR = 3.09, 95% CI; (2.04-4.67)) and general anesthesia (AOR = 1.82, 95% CI (1.21-2.75)) are significantly associated with SSI after cesarean section in Ethiopia.

CONCLUSION

SSI after cesarean section in Ethiopia is high. Prolonged labor, chorioamnionits, prolonged PROM, repeated vaginal examination, decreased Hgb level, vertical skin incision and general anesthesia were positively associated. Thus, evidence based intra-partum care should be practiced.

Prevalence, risk factors, and antimicrobial resistance of endemic healthcare-associated infections in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Healthcare-associated infections (HCAI) place a significant burden on healthcare systems globally. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate the prevalence, risk factors, and aetiologic agents of endemic HCAI in Africa.

METHODS

MEDLINE/PubMed, CINAHL, and Global Health databases (EBSCOhost interface) were searched for studies published in English and French describing HCAI in Africa from 2010 to 2022. We extracted data on prevalence of HCAI, risk factors, aetiologic agents, and associated antimicrobial resistance patterns. We used random-effects models to estimate parameter values with 95% confidence intervals for risk factors associated with HCAI. This study was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42022374559) and followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines.

RESULTS

Of 2541 records screened, 92 were included, comprising data from 81,968 patients. Prevalence of HCAI varied between 1.6 and 90.2% with a median of 15% across studies. Heterogeneity (I2) varied from 93 to 99%. Contaminated wound (OR: 1.75, 95% CI: 1.31-2.19), long hospital stay (OR: 1.39, 95% CI: 0.92-1.80), urinary catheter (OR: 1.57, 95% CI: 0.35-2.78), intubation and ventilation (OR: 1.53, 95% CI: 0.85-2.22), vascular catheters (OR: 1.49, 95% CI: 0.52-2.45) were among risk factors associated with HCAI. Bacteria reported from included studies comprised 6463 isolates, with E. coli (18.3%, n = 1182), S. aureus (17.3%, n = 1118), Klebsiella spp. (17.2%, n = 1115), Pseudomonas spp. (10.3%, n = 671), and Acinetobacter spp. (6.8%, n = 438) being most common. Resistance to multiple antibiotics was common; 70.3% (IQR: 50-100) of Enterobacterales were 3rd -generation cephalosporin resistant, 70.5% (IQR: 58.8-80.3) of S. aureus were methicillin resistant and 55% (IQR: 27.3-81.3) Pseudomonas spp. were resistant to all agents tested.

CONCLUSIONS

HCAI is a greater problem in Africa than other regions, however, there remains a paucity of data to guide local action. There is a clear need to develop and validate sustainable HCAI definitions in Africa to support the implementation of routine HCAI surveillance and inform implementation of context appropriate infection prevention and control strategies.

Comorbidities directly extracted from the hospital database for adjusting SSI risk in the new national semiautomated surveillance system in France: The SPICMI network

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the performance of a comorbidity-based risk-adjustment model for surgical-site infection (SSI) reporting and benchmarking using a panel of variables extracted from the hospital discharge database (HDD), including comorbidities, compared to other models that use variables from different data sources.

METHODS

The French national surveillance program for SSI (SPICMI) has collected data from voluntary hospitals in the first 6 months of 2020 and 2021, for 16 selected surgery procedures, using a semiautomated algorithm for detection. Four risk-adjustment models were selected with logistic regression analysis, combining the different patterns of variables: National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System (NNIS) risk-index components, individual operative data, and 6 individual comorbidities according to International Classification of Disease, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) diagnosis: obesity, diabetes, malnutrition, hypertension, cancer, or immunosuppression. Areas under the curve (AUCs) were calculated and compared.

RESULTS

Overall, 294 SSI were detected among 11,975 procedures included. All 6 comorbidities were related to SSI in the univariate analysis. The AUC of the selected model including comorbidities (0.675; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.642-0.707), was significantly higher than the AUC of the model without comorbidities (0.641; 95% CI, 0.609-0.672; P = .016) or the AUC using the NNIS-index components (0.598; 95% CI, 0.564-0.630; P < .001). The HDD-based model AUC (0.659; 95% CI, 0.625-0.692) did not differ significantly from the selected model without comorbidities (P = .23).

CONCLUSION

Including HDD-based comorbidities as patient case-mix variables instead of NNIS risk index factors could be an effective approach for risk-adjustment of automated SSI surveillance more widely accessible to hospitals.

Incidence, Bacterial Profile and Predictors of Surgical Site Infection After Cesarean Section in Ethiopia, A Prospective Cohort Study

Background

Surgical site infections (SSI) after cesarean section are common in Ethiopia and result in maternal morbidity, mortality, hospitalization, and medical costs. This study aimed to determine the incidence, bacterial profile, and associated factors of surgical site infection after cesarean section (CS) in public and private referral hospitals.

Methods

A prospective observational cohort study was conducted on 741 pregnant women who underwent CS from July to September 2022. Women who had CS were followed up for at least 30 days. Infected wound specimens from those who had SSIs were collected and bacteriologically analyzed. The data were analyzed with SPSS version 25. The logistic regression model assessed the relationship between the independent variable and the outcome with 95% confidence interval.

Results

The incidence of post-cesarean surgical site infection was 11.6% (95% Cl: 9.4, 13.6). Staphylococcus aureus was the most common bacteria in CS wounds 10 (21.2%). Two to three antenatal care visits (ANC) (AOR: 3.11, 95% CI: 1.69, 5.75), delayed antenatal booking (AOR: 6.99, 95% CI: 2.09, 23.32), membrane rupture (AOR: 2.10, 95% CI: 1.04, 4.24), multiple vaginal examinations (AOR = 4.21, 95% CI: 1.35, 6.92) and public hospitals (AOR: 11.1, 95% CI: 1.48, 45, 14) were associated with increased risk of SSI after CS, in contrary shorter hospital stays (AOR = 0.37, 95% CI: 0.15, 0.91) and transversal incisions (AOR = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.15, 0.91) were associated with lower risk SSI after CS.

Conclusion

The incidence of SSI after CS was high. Delayed antenatal booking, two to three antenatal visits, multiple vaginal exams, membrane rupture, vertical incision, longer postoperative hospital stays, and procedures in public hospitals were associated with increased risk of SSI after CS. Therefore, intervention programs should focus on post-discharge surveillance and identification of risk to reduce and prevent SSI after CS rate.

Impact of Intraoperative Factors on the Development of Postpartum Septic Complications

Background and Objectives: Triclosan-coated sutures (antibacterial sutures) can reduce the risk of postoperative surgical site infection. This study aimed to investigate the effect of intraoperative factors, including antibacterial sutures, on the risk of postpartum septic complications. Materials and Methods: The prospective study included patients who underwent caesarean section. The exclusion criterion was chorioamnionitis. The investigation group patient's (n = 67) uterus and fascial sheath of the abdominal wall were sutured with triclosan-coated polyglactin 910 sutures during surgery. The control group consisted of 98 patients using uncoated polyglactin 910 sutures only. The patients were contacted by phone after the 30th postoperative day. Results: No significant difference was found between the investigation group and the control group in the development of postpartum endometritis (11.7% in the investigation group vs. 8.4% in the control group, p = 0.401), wound infection (6.3% vs. 3.6%, p = 0.444) or patients experienced any septic complication (15.9% vs. 12%, p = 0.506). Postpartum endometritis was more common in patients who underwent instrumental uterine examination during the surgery (23.8% vs. 18%, p = 0.043). A moderately strong correlation was found for haemoglobin level on the third-fourth postoperative day with the development of postpartum septic complications, p < 0.001, Pearson coefficient -0.319. Post-caesarean delivery septic complications were not statistically more common in patients with blood loss greater than 1 L. The incidence of post-caesarean endometritis was 13.4%, and wound infection was 4.8% in this study's hospital, having five to six thousand deliveries per year. Conclusions: Using antibacterial sutures during caesarean section does not affect the incidence of postpartum septic complications. Instrumental uterine examination during caesarean section increases the risk of post-caesarean endometritis and is, therefore, not recommended. Haemoglobin level on the 3rd-4th postoperative day, rather than the estimated blood loss during surgery, affects the development of postpartum septic complications.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Gene Profile of Clinical Staphylococcus aureus: A Multi-Center Study from Ethiopia

Background

Staphylococcus aureus causes a wide range of infections from mild skin and soft tissue to severe life-threatening bacteremia. The pathogenicity of S. aureus infections is related to various bacterial surface components and extracellular proteins such as toxic-shock syndrome (TSS) toxin and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL). In this study we determine the antimicrobial resistance of isolated strains and their virulence genes in Ethiopia.

Methods

A total of 190 archived S. aureus isolates from four Ethiopia Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Surveillance sites were analyzed. The identification of S. aureus was done by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF Biotyper) and antimicrobial susceptibility test (AST) was done using VITEK^® 2. Multiplex PCR was used to detect mecA, mecC, pvl and spa genes and super-antigens (sea, seb, sec, seh and sej staphylococcal enterotoxins).

Results

A total of 172 isolates were confirmed as S. aureus, 9 (5.23%) were methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and 163 (94.76%) were methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA). AST showed that 152 (88.4%) isolates were resistant to penicillin; 90 (52.32%) resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole; and 45 (26.16%) resistant to tetracycline. A total of 66 (38.37%) isolates harbored at least one staphylococcal enterotoxin gene and 31 (46.96%) isolates had more than one. The most frequent enterotoxin gene encountered was seb 28 (16.28%). The TSST-1 gene was detected in 23 (13.37%). Presence of staphylococcal enterotoxin gene showed significant association with antibiotic resistance to cefoxitin, benzylpenicillin, oxacillin, erythromycin, clindamycin, tetracycline and SXT. The pvl gene was detected in 102 (59.3%) of isolates. Isolates from patients below 15 years of age showed significantly high numbers of pvl gene (P = 0.02). Presence of sej (P = 0.011) and TSST-1 (P <0.001) genes were associated with the presence of pvl gene.

Conclusion

In this study, isolates were highly resistant to oral antibiotics and the pvl, seb, sea and TSST-1 genes were prevalent.

Meta-analysis of prophylactic negative pressure wound therapy for surgical site infections (SSI) in caesarean section surgery

Introduction

Negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) has been used in reducing the incidence of surgical site infections (SSIs) and wound complications across various surgical categories. SSIs are a common post-surgical complication following caesarean section (CS) births, making it necessary to use prophylactic interventions to reduce SSI and wound complication incidences.

Aim

To conduct an updated meta-analysis on randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing SSI incidence and wound complications in women undergoing C-sections receiving NPWT or standard dressings after wound closure.

Material and methods

A systematic literature review was conducted using MEDLINE and CENTRAL databases, and clinical trial registries for RCTs that involved NPWT versus standard dressings in participants undergoing C-section procedures. The primary outcome was surgical site infection (SSI) and other wound complications (haematoma, dehiscence, seroma.

Results

A total of 11 RCTs were included in the meta-analysis with information from 5,693 patients. A reduction in overall SSI incidence (RR = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.66-0.95, p = 0.01, I2 = 0%) and wound complication rate (RR = 0.86, 0.75 to 0.98, p = 0.02, I2 = 5%) was found with all studies pooled together. Subgroup analyses showed that NPWT did not significantly reduce SSI incidence when stratified by the type of C-section (emergency/elective) whereas the type of NPWT device had a differential effect on SSI reduction, with PICO NPWT systems showing a beneficial effect (RR = 0.72, 0.58 to 0.91, p = 0.006, I2 = 0%) in comparison to the PREVENA closed-incision device (RR = 0.94, 0.68 to 1.29, p = 0.73, I2 = 0%).

Conclusions

Prophylactic NPWT is useful in reducing the incidence of SSIs in women undergoing C-sections based on synthesis of results from RCTs in obese women (BMI > 30 kg/m2).

Treatment outcomes of penetrating abdominal injury requiring laparotomy at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Harar, Ethiopia

Background

Penetrating abdominal injury (PAI) is a public health problem and accounts for significant mortality and disability in both developing and developed countries. It often causes damage to internal organs, resulting in shock and infection. In this study, we assessed the outcomes of PAI and factors associated with post-surgical outcomes including surgical site infection (SSI) and in-hospital death.

Methods

An institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted from 15 January to January 30, 2020, using a standard checklist to review the clinical charts of patients who presented to Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital (HFSUH) with PAI and underwent laparotomy between January 2015 and September 2019. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the characteristics of patients, and odds ratios (ORs) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) were reported for factors included in binary logistic regression. The statistical significance was declared at a P-value <0.05.

Results

A total of 352 charts of patients with PAI were reviewed. A majority of them (84.9%) were males and the mean age was 26.5 years. The anterior abdomen was the most common site of injury, accounting for 285 patients (81%), 329 patients (93.5%) suffered organ injury, 204 (62%) had a single organ injury, and 125 (38%) had more than one organ injury. The leading injured organs were small intestines 194 (55.1%), followed by the colon 88 (25%) and liver 40 (11.4%). The magnitude of SSI and hospital death was 84 (23.9%) and 12 (3.4%), respectively. Patients above 45 years of age (AOR = 2.9, 95% CI: 1.2, 9.2), with fluid collection (AOR = 2.7, 95% CI: 1.2, 5.9), colostomy (AOR = 3.9, 95% CI: 1.9, 7.8), body temperature >37.5 °C (AOR = 3.8,95% CI:1.9,7.6), and Hgb < 10 mg/dl (AOR = 7.4, 95% CI: 3.4,16.1) had a higher likelihood of SSI. Those patients admitted to the intensive care unit (AOR = 21.3, 95% CI: 1.1, 412.3) and who underwent damage control surgery (AOR = 9.6, 95% CI: 1.3, 73.3) had a higher likelihood of mortality.

Conclusions

SSI and death among patients with PAI were high. Age, fluid collection, colostomy, body temperature, and hemoglobin level were statistically associated with SSI, and intensive care unit and damage control surgery were statistically associated with death. Therefore, health professionals working in surgical wards should consider these factors to alleviate SSI and prevent death. Broadly speaking, the guidelines of the World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES) should consider these factors in their recommendations.

Discharge instructions given to women following delivery by cesarean section in Sub-Saharan Africa: A scoping review

OBJECTIVE

A scoping review of discharge instructions for women undergoing cesarean section (c-section) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

METHOD

Studies were identified from PubMed, Globus Index Medicus, NiPAD, EMBASE, and EBSCO databases. Eligible papers included research based in a SSA country, published in English or French, and containing information on discharge instructions addressing general postnatal care, wound care, planning of future births, or postpartum depression targeted for women delivering by c-section. For analysis, we used the PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews followed by a narrative synthesis. We assessed quality of evidence using the GRADE system.

RESULTS

We identified 78 eligible studies; 5 papers directly studied discharge protocols and 73 included information on discharge instructions in the context of a different study objective. 37 studies addressed wound care, with recommendations to return to a health facility for dressing changes and wound checks between 3 days to 6 weeks. 16 studies recommended antibiotic use at discharge, with 5 specifying a particular antibiotic. 19 studies provided recommendations around contraception and family planning, with 6 highlighting intrauterine device placement immediately after birth or 6-weeks postpartum and 6 studies discussing the importance of counselling services. Only 5 studies provided recommendations for the evaluation and management of postpartum depression in c-section patients; these studies screened for depression at 4-8 weeks postpartum and highlighted connections between c-section delivery and the loss of self-esteem as well as connections between emergency c-section delivery and psychiatric morbidity.

CONCLUSION

Few studies in SSA directly examine discharge protocols and instructions for women following c-section. Those available demonstrate wide variation in recommendations. Research is needed to develop structured evidence-based instructions with clear timelines for women. These instructions should account for financial burden, access to resources, and education of patients and communities.

Decreased incidence of cesarean surgical site infection rate with hospital-wide perioperative bundle

BACKGROUND

Reduction in the incidence of surgical site infection (SSI) serves as a measure of patient safety and quality improvement. Cesarean birth (CB) accounts for 31.9% of all childbirths in the United States. However, our understanding of SSI prevention bundles predominantly stems from gynecological and colorectal surgeries. This study aimed to determine the efficacy of a standardized perioperative bundle designed to reduce SSI in CBs.

METHODS

All CB patients at Flushing Hospital Medical Center from 2017 to 2019 were included in a retrospective analysis. Patients were divided into three groups based on the timing of intervention: prebundle/control, transition, and postbundle. Baseline demographics and clinical characteristics were summarized using descriptive statistics. Multiple logistic regression was performed to determine the association between bundle group and SSI, considering variables different between groups at baseline (P < 0.10).

RESULTS

Two thousand eight hundred and seventy-five CBs were performed: 1086 in prebundle, 812 in transition, and 977 in postbundle phase. In the prebundle phase, 25 CBs (2.3%) were complicated by SSIs; in the transition phase, 10 (1.2%) had SSIs; and in the postbundle phase, 7 (0.7%; P = 0.009) had SSIs. In a logistic regression model, only use of the CB bundle (OR 0.26 [95% CI 0.07-0.94]; P = 0.04), rupture of membranes (0.29 [0.09-0.87]; P = 0.03), and operating room time (1.02 [1.01-1.04]; P = 0.01) were significant in prediction of SSI. SSI postbundle was significantly reduced from prebundle (0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, introduction of a hospital-wide perioperative bundle significantly reduced SSI rates, and should be developed as a mainstay of CB surgical care.

Prevalence, Risk Factors and Microbial Profile of Surgical Site Infection after Cesarean Section in a Tertiary Care Center in Western India

Surgical site infection (SSI) was the predominant complication following cesarean delivery. Risk factors like increased Body Mass Index (BMI), emergency cesarean section (CS), prolonged hospital stay, previous CS, anemia, pre-existing chronic diseases, and failure to use preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis associated with SSI. Surgical site infections are responsible for cost burden, longer hospital stay increased maternal morbidity and mortality. Despite the advance, aseptic measures & control practice SSI was the most common nosocomial infection. To determine the prevalence, risk factors, bacterial profile, and antimicrobial resistance pattern of SSI in women following Cesarean section at tertiary care center western India. Women who developed SSI underwent cesarean delivery enrolled in the present study. Data were collected from patient records. Collection of swab samples, identification of microorganisms, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done by standard CLSI guidelines Results: Prevalence of SSI was 14.7% in this study. The risk factors significantly associated with SSI were emergency cesarean delivery, severe anemia, lack of preoperative antibiotics use, high Body Mass Index (BMI), preexisting disease, and previous history of CS, Klebsiella Pneumoniae & Staphylococcus aureus was the most predominant isolates. Imipenem was the most susceptible and Amoxycilline-Clavulanate was the most Resistance antibiotic. Prompt identification of risk factors, microbial agents, and susceptibility patterns of SSIs are beneficial for the selection of appropriate antimicrobial therapy to prevent the emergence of drug resistance, planning to make infection control & antibiotic policy, and taking appropriate steps to prevent risk factors.

Post-cesarean section surgical site infection and associated factors in East Gojjam zone primary hospitals, Amhara region, North West Ethiopia, 2020

PURPOSE

Maternal surgical site infection after cesarean delivery is a clinical problem which contributes to significant morbidity and mortality. In Ethiopia admissions following cesarean section due to surgical site infection have been routine activities of health care institutions but there is limited scientific evidence on both the magnitude of the problem and factors associated with it making prevention mechanisms less effective. Therefore, this study aimed to assess magnitude and risk factors of post-cesarean section surgical site infection at primary hospitals of East Gojjam Zone, Northwest Ethiopia.

METHODS

Institution-based cross sectional study with retrospective chart review was conducted from September 10-30 /2020 at 3 randomly selected primary hospitals of east Gojjam zone. The data were entered in Epi data version 3.1 and exported to Statistical Package for Social Science Software version 26. Post-cesarean section surgical site infection was measured based on disease classification and definition of the term by Center for Disease Control and Prevention. After checking for presence of multicollinarity, presence and degree of association of factors with outcome variable were computed through logistic regression analysis. Factors with P value ≤ 0.2 in bi-variable logistic regression analysis were included in the multivariable logistic regression analysis and those variables with P-value of <0.05 in multivariable analysis were considered statistically significant.

RESULT

From 622 medical records of women who underwent cesarean section, 77 (12.4%) of them developed surgical site infection. Rural residence [(AOR = 2.30, 95%CI: (1.29, 4.09)], duration of labor greater than 24hrs [(AOR = 3.48, 95%CI: (1.49, 8.09)], rupture of membrane>12hrs[(AOR = 4.61,95%CI:(2.34,9.09)], hypertension[(AOR = 3.14,95%CI:(1.29,7.59)] and preoperative Hematocrit ≤30%[(AOR = 3.22,95%CI:(1.25,8.31)] were factors significantly associated with post-cesarean section surgical site infections.

CONCLUSION

Magnitude of post-cesarean section surgical site infection was a significant problem in primary hospitals. Minimizing prolonged labor; minimize early rupture of membrane, properly managing patients with comorbidities like hypertension, strengthen prophylaxis and treatment for anemia during antenatal care and raising awareness for rural residents can reduce the problem. Zonal police makers should give emphasis to reduce its burden.

Incidence, risk factors and management of post cesarean section surgical site infection (SSI) in a tertiary hospital in Egypt: a five year retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Surgical site infection (SSI) is one of the commonest complications following cesarean section (CS) with a reported incidence of 3-20%. SSI causes massive burdens on both the mother and the health care system. Moreover, it is associated with high maternal morbidity and mortality rate of up to 3%. This study aims to determine the incidence, risk factors and management of SSI following CS in a tertiary hospital.

METHODS

This was an observational case control retrospective study which was conducted at Minia maternity university hospital, Egypt during the period from January 2013 to December 2017 (Five years). A total of 15,502 CSs were performed during the studied period, of these, 828 cases developed SSI following CS (SSI group). The control group included 1500 women underwent cesarean section without developing SSI. The medical records of both groups were reviewed regarding the sociodemographic and the clinical characteristics.

RESULTS

The incidence of SSI post-cesarean section was 5.34%. Significant risk factors for SSI were; chorioamnionitis (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 4.51; 95% CI =3.12-6.18), premature rupture of membranes (PROM) (AOR 3.99; 95% CI =3.11-4.74), blood loss of > 1000 ml (AOR 2.21; 95% CI =1.62-3.09), emergency CS (AOR 2.16; 95% CI =1.61-2.51), duration of CS of > 1 h (AOR 2.12; 95% CI =1.67-2.79), no antenatal care (ANC) visits (AOR 2.05; 95% CI =1.66-2.37), duration of labor of ≥24 h (AOR 1.45; 95% CI =1.06-2.01), diabetes mellitus (DM) (AOR 1.37; 95% CI =1.02-2.1 3), obesity (AOR 1.34; 95% CI =0.95-1.84), high parity (AOR 1.27; 95% CI = 1.03-1.88), hypertension (AOR 1.19; 95% CI = 0.92-2.11) and gestational age of < 37 wks (AOR 1.12; 95% CI = 0.94-1.66). The mortality rate due to SSI was 1.33%.

CONCLUSIONS

The obtained incidence of SSI post CS in our study is relatively lower than other previous studies from developing countries. The development of SSI is associated with many factors rather than one factor. Management of SSI is maninly medical but surgical approach may be needed in some cases.

REGISTRATION

Local ethical committee (Registration number: MOBGYN0040).

Post cesarean section surgical site infection and associated factors among women who delivered in public hospitals in Harar city, Eastern Ethiopia: A hospital-based analytic cross-sectional study

Background

Cesarean section (CS) is often complicated by surgical site infection (SSI) that may happen to a woman within 30 days after the operation. This study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of SSI and identify the factors associated with SSI.

Methods

A hospital-based analytic cross-sectional study was conducted based on the review of medical records of 1069 women who underwent CS in two public hospitals in Harar city. The post-CS SSI is defined when it occurred within 30 days after the CS procedure. Factors associated with SSI were identified using a multivariable binary logistic regression analysis. The analysis outputs are presented using an adjusted odds ratio (aOR) with a corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI). All statistical tests are defined as statistically significant at P-values<0.05.

Results

The prevalence of SSI was 12.3% (95% confidence interval (CI): 10.4, 14.4). Emergency-CS was conducted for 75.9% (95% CI: 73.2, 78.3) of the women and 13.2% (95% CI: 11.3, 15.4) had at least one co-morbid condition. On presentation, 21.7% (95% CI: 19.3, 24.3) of women had rupture of membrane (ROM). Factors significantly and positively associated with post-CS SSI include general anesthesia (aOR = 2.0, 95%CI: 1.10, 2.90), ROM (aOR = 2.27, 95%CI: 1.02, 3.52), hospital stay for over 7 days after operation (aOR = 3.57, 95%CI: 1.91, 5.21), and blood transfusion (aOR = 4.2, 95%CI: 2.35, 6.08).

Conclusion

The prevalence of post-CS SSI was relatively high in the study settings. Screening for preoperative anemia and appropriate correction before surgery, selection of the type of anesthesia, close follow-up to avoid unnecessary prolonged hospitalization, and careful assessment of membrane status should be considered to avoid preventable SSI and maternal morbidity.

Magnitude and factors associated with surgical site infection among mothers underwent cesarean delivery in Nekemte town public hospitals, western Ethiopia

Background

Surgical site infection (SSI) is a serious public health problem due to its impacts on maternal morbidity and mortality and it can have a significant effect on quality of life for the patient. However, little has been studied regarding the magnitude and factors associated with SSI among women underwent cesarean delivery (CD) in study area. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the magnitude and factors associated with SSI among women underwent cesarean delivery in Nekemte Town Public Hospitals 2020.

Methods

An institution based cross-sectional study was conducted from January 1/2018 to January 1/2020. A simple random sampling technique was employed to select 401 patient cards from all records women underwent CD from January 1/2018 to January 1/2020. Epidata version 3.2 was used for data entry, and STATA version 14 was used for analysis. A logistic regression model was used to determine the association of independent variables with the outcome variable and adjusted odds ratios (AOR) with 95% confidence interval was used to estimate the strength of the association.

Results

Three hundred eight two (382) cards of women were selected for analysis making a response rate of 95.2%. The mean (±SD) age of the mothers was 25.9 (±4.8) years. The prevalence of SSIs was 8.9% (95% CI: 6.03, 11.76). Age > 35 years (AOR = 5.03, 95% CI:1.69, 14.95), pregnancy-induced hypertension (AOR = 5.63, 95%CI:1.88, 16.79), prolonged labor (AOR = 4.12, 95% CI:1.01, 32.19), receiving general anesthesia (AOR = 3.96 95% CI:1.02, 15.29), and post-operative hemoglobin less than 11 g/dl (AOR = 4.51 95% CI:1.84, 11.07) were significantly associated with the occurrence of SSI after cesarean delivery.

Conclusions and recommendations

The magnitude of post CD SSI in this study was comparable with the sphere standards of CDC guidelines for SSI after CD. Concerned bodies should give due attention the proper utilization of partograph to prevent prolonged labor, and provision of iron folate to increase the hemoglobin level of pregnant mothers in all health institution. In addition, we would recommend the use of spinal anesthesia over general anesthesia.

Surgical site infection and its association with rupture of membrane following cesarean section in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies

Introduction

Surgical site infection occurs within 30 days after a surgical procedure and involves the skin, subcutaneous tissue, and soft tissue. Surgical site infection following cesarean section is a common postoperative complication and is associated with maternal morbidity and mortality in resource-limited settings. Even though the proportion of surgical site infection and some risk factors were reported by kinds of literature, varying results were stated across studies. There is also limited knowledge on the association between postpartum surgical site infection and the rupture of membrane. Hence, this systematic review and meta-analysis was designed to estimate the pooled proportion of surgical site infection and its association with rupture of membrane following cesarean section in Africa.

Methods

Studies published from January 01, 2000 to January 30, 2020 were searched from MEDLINE via PubMed, Scopus, Medscape, Web-science and CINAHL databases to search relevant published articles. We also performed a manual search of reference lists of key articles to retrieve additional relevant articles. Initially, 559 records were identified and 15 studies included in the analysis. The statistical analysis was performed using STATA 11. Heterogeneity between-study was explored by forest plot and inconsistency index (I²). The publication bias was checked by a funnel plot and Egger’s test. Pooled estimates of proportion and odds ratio were calculated by a random-effects model with a 95% confidence interval (CI).

Results

The overall pooled proportion of surgical site infection following cesarean section was 10.21% (I² = 86.8, p < 0.000; 95% CI = 8.36, 12.06). The odds of developing surgical site infection among women who had the rupture of membrane before delivery were nearly 6 times higher than those who had not a rupture of the membrane (AOR = 5.65, 95% CI: 3.95–8.07).

Conclusions

The proportion of surgical site infections following the cesarean section is relatively high. Women who had rupture of the membrane before delivery were more likely to develop surgical site infections following the cesarean section. Due attention should be given to the provision of prophylactic antibiotics that can reduce surgical site infection after cesarean delivery.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40748-020-00122-2.

Incidence and Risk Factors of Wound Infection in Women Who Underwent Cesarean Section in 2014 at King Abdulaziz Medical City, Jeddah

Introduction

Cesarean section (C/S) is considered one of the most commonly performed procedures among women. The maternal morbidity due to infection post-C/S reaches eight-fold higher than that of vaginal delivery. Our aim is to identify the incidence and risk factors of surgical site infection (SSI) among patients at King Abdul Aziz Medical City (KAMC), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, in order to develop a strong strategy to reduce its occurrence.

Methods

This retrospective cohort study was conducted at KAMC, Jeddah. The study included a total of 387 women who underwent cesarean sections from January 2014 to December 2014. The data were collected consecutively by reviewing medical records of pregnant patients who underwent elective or emergency C/S. The risk factors studied included age, presence of underlying diseases, BMI, hemoglobin level, prophylactic antibiotics, pre-labor rupture of membrane, duration of induction of labor, type of C/S, type of uterine incision, duration of operation, type of anesthesia, estimated blood loss, type of organism, and the duration of hospital stay postoperatively. 

Results

The incidence rate of wound infections (WI) was 3.4% (13/387). The mean age score was 31.1±5.6 years, and the mean score of BMI was 32.7±6.2, where the majority were obese (255, 65.9%). More than half of the participants (205, 53.0%) had elective C/S, with mean hospitalization duration 2.5±1.3 days, and operation duration mean score 59.5±22.0 minutes. The majority (378, 97.7%) received antibiotics before the operation, where cefazolin was the main antibiotic (376, 97.2%). Only 38 (10%) cases had intra-operative complications, where the main complication was postpartum hemorrhage (18, 44.0%). The majority of WI were superficial (11 cases), the main organism was E. coli in four (36.4%) cases, followed by Staphylococcus aureus in three (27.3%) cases. There was a significant association between WI post-C/S and BMI, type of uterine incision, and induction of labor (P=006, P=0.003, respectively). 

Conclusions

This study showed that WI post-C/S is associated with high BMI, prolonged induction of labor, and Pfannenstiel incision. Reducing the rate of SSI will help to reduce its morbidity by identifying the risk factors pre-pregnancy and encouraging the implementation of preconception counseling clinics and antenatal classes to educate and increase awareness among patients.

Microbial Contamination after Cardiac Surgery in a Hospital Cardiac Surgery Ward

Surgery site infection is one of the most common postoperative complications which is associated with increased morbidity, mortality and admission costs. It is considered a priority to determine the level of nosocomial infection and its control in reflecting the quality of care. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the microbial contamination after cardiac surgery at a hospital cardiac surgery ward of Besat Hospital, Tehran.

In this cross-sectional descriptive-analytic study (2013-2017), 610 patients underwent surgery at the Department of Cardiac Surgery of Besat Hospital. All necessary information such as urine culture, surgical site, histopathologic examination for the diagnosis of microbial contamination and microorganisms were collected from the patient records and inserted in the questionnaire. The data were analyzed using SPSS (version 25).

The incidence of nosocomial infections following cardiac surgery reportedly ranged from 17% to 23%. Accordingly, pneumonia (51.2%) and local infections (22%) were the most common infections in the studied population. The mortality rate in our population was 11.4%. Moreover, 64.3% of the total mortality cases were reported in patients with sepsis. The mean age and duration of admission of patients with catheter infection were significantly higher than other subjects.

Given the relatively high prevalence of the infection and its importance, it is necessary to take more serious measures to prevent and control these infections.

Maternal caesarean section infection (MACSI) in Sierra Leone: a case-control study

Sierra Leone is the country with highest maternal mortality and infections are the underlying cause in 11% of maternal deaths, but the real burden remains unknown. This study aims to determine the incidence and risk factors of surgical site infection (SSI) post-caesarean section (CS) in women admitted to Princess Christian Maternity Hospital (PCMH) in Freetown, Sierra Leone. A prospective case–control (1:3 ratio) study was implemented from 1 May 2018 to 30 April 2019 and 11 women presenting with suspected or confirmed infection post-CS were screened for inclusion as a case. For each case, three patients undergoing CS on the same day and admitted to the same ward, but not presenting with SSI, were selected as controls. The post-CS infection rate was 10.9%. Two hundred and fifty-four clinically confirmed cases were enrolled and matched with 762 control patients. By multivariable analysis, the risk factors for SSI were: being single (odds ratio (OR) 1.48, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.36–1.66), low education level (OR 1.68, 95% CI 1.55–1.84), previous CS (OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.10–1.52), presenting with premature membranes rupture (OR 1.49, 95% CI 1.18–1.88), a long decision–incision time (OR 2.08, 95% CI 1.74–2.24) and a high missing post-CS antibiotic doses rate (OR 2.52, 95% CI 2.10–2.85).