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Bell L, Lemos E, Krimphove J, Kaiser S, Guerra-Giraldez C, Lemos M. vSEMERA: pilot project assessing health profession students' experiences in an international virtual research program. BMC MEDICAL EDUCATION 2024; 24:606. [PMID: 38824559 PMCID: PMC11143557 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-024-05528-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The "Virtual Semester for Medical Research Aachen" (vSEMERA) is an international, interdisciplinary, virtual education program developed for health profession students. The first edition (2021) was hosted by the Medical Faculty of RWTH Aachen University (Germany) in cooperation with Centro Universitário Christus (Brazil) and Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia (Peru). The primary aim of the 12-weeks program was to provide students with skills in health science research and prepare them for scientific career paths. METHODS vSEMERA was built on a virtual learning platform, the "vSEMERA-Campus", designed to foster students' learning process and social interactions. Maximum flexibility was offered through synchronous and asynchronous teaching, enabling participants to join via any device from any part of the Globe alongside their regular studies. For the program's first edition (September - November 2021), health profession students from Germany, Brazil, Peru, Spain, and Italy filled all 30 available spots. Satisfaction, quality of the program and courses offered, as well as perceived learning outcomes, were examined using questionnaires throughout and at the end of the program. RESULTS The program received a rating of 4.38 out of 5 stars. While it met most expectations (4.29 out of 5), participants were unable to attend as many courses as intended (2.81 out of 5), mainly due to scheduling conflicts with the home university schedule (46%), internships (23%), and general timing issues (31%). Participants acknowledged considerable improvements in their scientific skills, English language skills, confidence in scientific project management, research career progression, and enthusiasm for a scientific career. CONCLUSIONS vSEMERA represents a promising example of an online international learning and exchange program using pedagogical and technological elements of virtual collaboration and teaching. In addition to advancing future vSEMERA editions, our results may offer insights for similar projects that address the targeted integration of scientific research education into an international, digital learning environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Bell
- Audiovisual Media Center, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Eliana Lemos
- Dean of Studies and Teaching Office, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Jan Krimphove
- Centro Universitário Christus (Unichristus), Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Stephanie Kaiser
- Institute for History, Theory and Ethics of Medicine, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Mauthausen Memorial, Vienna, Austria
| | - Cristina Guerra-Giraldez
- Institutional Affairs and Internationalization, School of Science and Engeneering, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - Martin Lemos
- Audiovisual Media Center, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
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Kajjimu J, Dreifuss H, Tagg A, Dreifuss B, Bongomin F. Undergraduate Learning in the COVID-19 Pandemic: Lessons Learned and Ways Forward. ADVANCES IN MEDICAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICE 2023; 14:355-361. [PMID: 37063110 PMCID: PMC10095942 DOI: 10.2147/amep.s395445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic is in constant evolution, much like the virus, and we must learn to adapt our undergraduate education and learning strategies to enable students to complete their studies. This narrative review focuses on what is currently known about the face-to-face and e-learning strategies of undergraduate medical students in resource-limited settings during the COVID-19 pandemic. The majority of studies, involving health professional students, took place in 2020. Few involved educators. Students have faced challenges with the transition to remote learning, for which a couple of interventions have been devised. Bridging the gap in access and utilisation of remote learning might have required more time, however, the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the learning curve and the transition from in-person to online learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Kajjimu
- Faculty of Medicine, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Heather Dreifuss
- Center for Health Equity Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA
| | - Andrew Tagg
- Emergency Department, Western Health, Melbourne, Vic, Australia
- School of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic, Australia
| | - Bradley Dreifuss
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine Tucson, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Felix Bongomin
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda
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Ng EKL. Student engagement in flipped classroom in nursing education: An integrative review. Nurse Educ Pract 2023; 68:103585. [PMID: 36868159 DOI: 10.1016/j.nepr.2023.103585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
AIM To summarize the effect of the flipped classroom method (FCM) on student engagement in nursing education and provide the implications for future practice. BACKGROUND Technological advancement of learning approaches including flipped classroom has become increasingly popular in nursing education. However, no integrative review has been published that specially explore the behaviour engagement, cognitive engagement and emotional engagement of flipped classroom use in nursing education. METHODS Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes and Study (PICOS) strategies were implemented to investigate the literature from published peer-reviewed papers from 2013 to 2021 in CINAHL, MEDLINE and Web of Science. RESULTS The initial search identified 280 potentially relevant articles. After comprehensively reviewing the initial catchment using several analytical phases, 16 articles were considered for the final review. Most of articles targeted on undergraduate nursing students and were conducted in the USA and Australia. The review primarily identified positive learning outcomes among nursing students in term of student engagement. However, a few studies reported contrasting findings, possibly due to students are still dependent on traditional lecture-based classroom. CONCLUSION This review suggests that use of the FCM in nursing education could promote students' behavioral engagement and cognitive engagement but yield a mixed outcome in emotional engagement. This review contributed to our understanding of the effect of the flipped classroom method on student engagement in nursing education, the strategies for promoting student engagement in future flipped classroom practice and recommendation for future research on flipped classroom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Ka Lai Ng
- The Hong Kong University School of Professional and Continuing Education Community College, 28, Wang Hoi Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China.
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Idris S, Fathuldeen A, Alshammari A, Khalifah E, Alrashid F, Alqahtani A, Alenazi F, Alruwaili S, Alshmmri M. Perspectives of Medical Students on E-Learning in the Surgery Module. ASIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH AND HEALTH CARE 2023. [DOI: 10.4103/ajprhc.ajprhc_87_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
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Saed A. A Systematic Review of the Medical Student Feedback on Undergraduate Surgical Education During the Pandemic. Cureus 2022; 14:e30440. [PMID: 36407129 PMCID: PMC9671270 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.30440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has challenged and changed significant aspects of day-to-day life. With regard to medical education, the challenges have been substantial, and the changes have been innovative. This systematic review focuses specifically on medical student feedback on undergraduate surgical education during the pandemic. It explores the various types of technology used to facilitate online learning and aims to comprehensively review the advantages and disadvantages. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were adhered to, and electronic databases PubMed, Medline, and Scopus were used to identify relevant studies. The search yielded 102 papers once duplicates and non-English articles were removed. Of these, 19 articles were included in the review. These publications were appraised, which was the source of the narrative syntheses of this systematic review, and due to the heterogeneous data, a meta-analysis could not be successfully implemented. The integration of real-time image capture devices used to display stakeholders or objects such as models of wounds has resulted in the improvement of virtual learning to an almost in-person experience. Adding to this, the use of communication and participation platforms facilitates active discussion when used appropriately. However, there are still some barriers that may be removed with time as the technology continually improves, and these are not exclusive to connectivity issues and restriction of the senses to only two-dimensional sight and hearing. Despite this, the student feedback was largely positive, and the integration of more innovative methods of delivering teaching will have a positive impact on education as long as it is used as an adjunct and not as a replacement for face-to-face teaching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdel Saed
- Orthopaedics, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, GBR
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Kam CT, Rait J, Brooke-Ball H, Ojofeitimi O. Virtual surgical education for foundation doctors in the United Kingdom during COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study. Ann Med Surg (Lond) 2022; 80:104192. [PMID: 35875059 PMCID: PMC9295329 DOI: 10.1016/j.amsu.2022.104192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Methods Results Conclusion Online surgical teaching provides opportunity to learn and develop surgical skills during the pandemic. Blended surgical teaching is realistic and can be advantageous.
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Färber CM, Lemos M, Said Yekta-Michael S. Effect of an endodontic e-learning application on students' performance during their first root canal treatment on real patients: a pilot study. BMC MEDICAL EDUCATION 2022; 22:394. [PMID: 35606729 PMCID: PMC9124745 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-022-03463-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND E-learning has found its way into dental teaching in general and endodontic teaching in particular. The present study aimed to implement a newly developed multimedia learning application and assess its effect on students' first root canal treatment on real patients. With the COVID-19 outbreak, the application's performance was investigated during the pandemic. METHODS A total of 138 students in the initial clinical endodontic course participated in this study. The control group (n = 49) followed the traditional curriculum, including practice on artificial teeth and face-to-face teaching events. In addition to the traditional curriculum, test group 1 (n = 54) had access to an endodontic e-learning application containing videos demonstrating artificial teeth and patient cases. With the COVID-19 outbreak, test group 2 (n = 35) had no face-to-face teaching; however, endodontic patient treatments were included. The quality of students' first root canal treatment on real patients was compared using performance and radiographic assessment items. Statistical analysis was done using Kruskal-Wallis and chi-squared tests. Test groups received a questionnaire to assess the learning application. Test group 2 also completed a COVID-19-specific survey to measure students' perceptions of how the pandemic affected their endodontic education. RESULTS The results of endodontic treatments were significantly better for test group 1 (P < 0.001) and 2 (P < 0.001) than for the control group. Likewise, there were significantly fewer treatment errors in test group 1 (P < 0.001) and 2 (P < 0.001). No significant differences were found between test groups 1 and 2. Students of the test groups positively evaluated the e-learning application. Students of test group 2 expressed their fear of negative impacts on their course performance. CONCLUSION The e-learning application was well-received and seemed to improve endodontic education. The results imply that the quality of education may be maintained by implementing e-learning to compensate for face-to-face teaching. As no difference was found between online and face-to-face teaching, students' and lecturers' concerns that endodontic education is suffering because of the pandemic may be eased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Maria Färber
- Department for Operative Dentistry, Periodontology and Preventive Dentistry, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Martin Lemos
- Audiovisual Media Center, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstraße 30, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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Koljonen V, Puolakkainen P, Helenius I. Lessons learned from COVID-19 pandemic in undergraduate surgical education. Scand J Surg 2022; 111:14574969221083138. [PMID: 35384788 DOI: 10.1177/14574969221083138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this editorial, we review our experience on distance teaching and based on our experiences suggest modifications to undergraduate surgical education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virve Koljonen
- Department of Plastic Surgery Helsinki University Hospital Park Hospital P.O. Box 281 Stenbäckinkatu 11 Helsinki 00029 Finland
| | - Pauli Puolakkainen
- Department of Surgery, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ilkka Helenius
- Department of Surgery, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
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Virtual orthopaedic surgery away rotation benefits both the program and applicant. CURRENT ORTHOPAEDIC PRACTICE 2022. [DOI: 10.1097/bco.0000000000001102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Divjak B, Rienties B, Iniesto F, Vondra P, Žižak M. Flipped classrooms in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: findings and future research recommendations. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 2022; 19:9. [PMID: 35252548 PMCID: PMC8882392 DOI: 10.1186/s41239-021-00316-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Flipped classroom (FC) approaches have gotten substantial attention in the last decade because they have a potential to stimulate student engagement as well as active and collaborative learning. The FC is generally defined as a strategy that flips the traditional education setting, i.e., the information transmission component of a traditional face-to-face lecture is moved out of class time. The FC relies on technology and is therefore suitable for online or blended learning, which were predominant forms of learning during the COVID-19 pandemic (March 2020-July 2021). In this paper we present a systematic literature review (SLR) of studies that covered online FC approaches in higher education during the pandemic. We analyzed 205 publications in total and 18 in detail. Our research questions were related to the main findings about the success of implementation of online FC and recommendations for future research. The findings indicated that those who had used FC approaches in face-to-face or blended learning environments more successfully continued to use them in online environments than those who had not used it before. The SLR opened possible questions for future research, such as the effectiveness of the FC for different courses and contexts, the cognitive and emotional aspects of student engagement, and students' data protection. It pointed to the need to examine different aspects of online delivery of the FC more comprehensively, and with more research rigor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blaženka Divjak
- Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Pavlinska 2, Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Bart Rienties
- Institute of Educational Technology, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Francisco Iniesto
- Institute of Educational Technology, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Petra Vondra
- Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Pavlinska 2, Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Mirza Žižak
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Šalata 3, Zagreb, Croatia
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Wu SJ, Fan YF, Sun S, Chien CY, Wu YJ. Perceptions of medical students towards and effectiveness of online surgical curriculum: a systematic review. BMC MEDICAL EDUCATION 2021; 21:571. [PMID: 34763706 PMCID: PMC8582331 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-021-03014-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Online education has been used as an adjunct modality for teaching and it attracts attention in recent years as many medical students can not accomplish their clerkship in the hospital due to COVID-19 pandemic. This study aims to collect the articles related to online surgical education for medical students, and to analyze the effectiveness of online education and the perceptions of the medical students. METHOD We performed a systemic literature search in PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE, ERIC and Cochrane library. Keywords used for searching included "medical student", "online education", "online teaching", "online learning", "distance learning", "electronic learning", "virtual learning" and "surgical". Medical education research study quality instrument (MERSQI) was used for the evaluation of the quality of the searched articles. RESULTS From 1240 studies retrieved from the databases, 13 articles were included in this study after screening. The publication year was from 2007 to 2021. The mean MERSQI score of the 13 searched articles was 12.5 +/- 1.7 (range 10.0-14.5). There were totally 2023 medical students who attended online surgical curriculum. By online course, improvement of understanding and knowledge on the studied topics could be reached. The confidence in patient encounters could be improved by online curriculum with sharing experiences, discussing, and role playing. However, students felt concentration was poor during online course. Medical students studying through video platform could get better test scores than those studying with textbooks. Regarding basic surgical skills, online teaching of suturing and knot-tying could be possible and was appreciated by the students who could practice away from the hospital and get feedbacks by instructors through online environment. The scores for the clinical competence assessment for incision, suturing and knot-tying were found to be no significant difference between the online teaching group and face-to-face teaching group. CONCLUSION Online surgical curriculum for medical students is not easy but inevitable in the era of COVID-19 pandemic. Although online course is not the same as physical course, there are some efforts which could be tried to increase the effectiveness. Basic surgical skills could also be taught effectively through online platform. Even if the COVID-19 pandemic is over in the future, online curriculum could still be a helpful adjunct for surgical education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shye-Jao Wu
- Division of Cardiovascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, MacKay Memorial Hospital, No.92, Sec 2, Chung-Shan N Road, Taipei, 104, Taiwan.
- Department of Medicine, MacKay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Ya-Fen Fan
- Division of Cardiovascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, MacKay Memorial Hospital, No.92, Sec 2, Chung-Shan N Road, Taipei, 104, Taiwan
| | - Shen Sun
- Division of Cardiovascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, MacKay Memorial Hospital, No.92, Sec 2, Chung-Shan N Road, Taipei, 104, Taiwan
- Department of Medicine, MacKay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Yen Chien
- Division of Cardiovascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, MacKay Memorial Hospital, No.92, Sec 2, Chung-Shan N Road, Taipei, 104, Taiwan
- Department of Medicine, MacKay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yih-Jer Wu
- Department of Medicine, MacKay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan
- Cardiovascular Center, Department of Internal Medicine, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
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Development of Online Virtual Laboratory Platform for Supporting Real Laboratory Experiments in Multi Domains. EDUCATION SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/educsci11090548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The increasing use of online virtual laboratories (OVLs) in educational institutions as a recent educational technology application necessitates developing a new educational platform for assisting instructors in using such technology in the teaching process without web programming obstacles. The OVLs are online environments that provide students with several types of content such as simulations, videos, scientific images, and infographics related to real laboratory experiments. This article proposes a unified online virtual laboratory platform (OVLP) to support instructors who teach real laboratory experiments in multi-domains. To evaluate the proposed platform, five university instructors and five experts of ICT in education have participated in this study. The data were collected using online questionnaires for both specialists, respectively. Regarding the results, they confirm that the proposed platform is acceptable for teaching real laboratory experiments, especially in the tested domains.
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Alamoudi WA, Alhelo AF, Almazrooa SA, Felemban OM, Binmadi NO, Alhindi NA, Ali SA, Akeel SK, Alhamed SA, Mansour GM, Mawardi HH. Why do students skip classroom lectures: A single dental school report. BMC MEDICAL EDUCATION 2021; 21:388. [PMID: 34284761 PMCID: PMC8293555 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-021-02824-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Conventional classroom lectures continue to represent a major component of the dental education system to ensure optimum delivery of knowledge. Certain number of students are less compliant and likely to skip classes which may impact the overall academic performance. The aim of this study was to investigate dental students' attitude towards classroom attendance and potential reasons for absenteeism at King Abdulaziz University-Faculty of Dentistry (KAU-FD). METHODS This was a cross-sectional survey of all dental students actively enrolled at KAU-FD from January to June 2019. The survey included questions on demographics, average travel time to school, current dental year, most recent GPA, student's perspective toward classroom lectures. The survey was validated and distributed to all students at a pre-selected time frame. Data were analysed and presented as frequencies and percentages; chi-square test was used to explore parameters association. RESULTS A total of 678 students consented and completed the survey. Overall, 44.3% of students were more likely to skip two classes or less per month. Second year dental students were more likely to be absent from classroom lectures (31.3%), while 3rd year dental students were less likely to do so (15.4%). Reported students' justifications for missing classes included early morning classes (47.9%), exams preparation (42%), and lecturer's weak presentation skills (41.9%). CONCLUSION Compliance of dental students with classroom attendance has been an ongoing challenge for most programs. The current data suggests a multifactorial module for students' attitude toward classroom attendance. Future studies focusing on reasons behind classroom attendance behavior and addressing students' concerns are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waleed A Alamoudi
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Azza F Alhelo
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Soulafa A Almazrooa
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Osama M Felemban
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nada O Binmadi
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nada A Alhindi
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sarah A Ali
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sara K Akeel
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sana A Alhamed
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ghadah M Mansour
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hani H Mawardi
- Department of Oral Diagnostic Sciences, King Abdul-Aziz University- Faculty of Dentistry, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
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