Antifungal activity of berberine hydrochloride and palmatine hydrochloride against Microsporum canis -induced dermatitis in rabbits and underlying mechanism

Microscopic distribution of alkaloids in freeze-fixed stems of Phellodendron amurense

Introduction

Phellodendron amurense Rupr. contains rich alkaloids, which have been extensively applied in clinical treatments for their various biological activities. However, detailed microscopic distribution and roles of such alkaloids in P. amurense stem still need to be clarified.

Methods

In this study, the distribution of eight alkaloids in the transverse surface of freeze-fixed P. amurense stems in fall and summer has been visualized by cryo-time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy (cryo-TOF-SIMS/SEM), which was found in living tissues with relative contents of different alkaloids varying with the position. In addition, the contents of these alkaloids quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis suggested the seasonal variation from fall to the following summer.

Results and discussion

Distribution of eight alkaloids in the freeze-fixed stems of P. amurense from fall and summer seasons has been visualized and assigned into specific living tissues, with relative contents varying in different positions with seasons, which suggested their possible roles in the physiological processes of the plant itself or plant responding to changes in the surrounding conditions.

Conclusion

This study provided a significant basis for further discussion of the genes or enzymes involved in these processes, which will contribute to investigating biosynthetic pathways and specific in planta roles of alkaloids.

Palmatine Inhibits the Pathogenicity of Aeromonas hydrophila by Reducing Aerolysin Expression

Aeromonas hydrophila, an opportunistic aquatic pathogen widely spread in aquatic environments, is responsible for a number of infectious diseases in freshwater aquaculture. In addition, A. hydrophila can transmit from diseased fish to humans and results in health problems. The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains restricts the application of antibiotics and is responsible for failure of the treatment. Moreover, residues of antibiotics in aquatic products often threaten the quality and safety. Therefore, alternative strategies are called to deal with infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Aerolysin, one of the most important virulence factors of A. hydrophila, is adopted as a unique anti-virulence target on the basis of the anti-virulence strategy to battling infections caused by A. hydrophila. Palmatine, an isoquinoline alkaloid from a variety of herbal medicines that showed no anti-A. hydrophila activity, could reduce hemolysis of the bacterium by decreasing aerolysin production. The results of the qPCR assay demonstrated that the transcription of the aerA gene was suppressed. Moreover, cell viability and in vivo study showed that palmatine treatment could decrease the pathogenicity of A. hydrophila both in vitro and in vivo. In summary, palmatine is a leading compound against A. hydrophila-associated infection in aquaculture by inhibiting the expression of aerolysin.

Antifungal Potential of Some Herb Decoctions and Essential Oils on Candida Species

(1) Background: Candidiasis is a fungal infectious disease caused by opportunistic Candida species. The incidence of candidiasis has improved, due to prolonged antibiotic therapy and an increased number of immunocompromised patients. The purpose of this study was to evaluate if decoctions and essential oil (EO) of neem (Azadirachta indica, Meliaceae family), coptidis (Coptis chinensis, Ranunculaceae family), magnolia (Magnolia officinalis, Magnoliaceae family), scutellaria (Scutellaria barbata, Lamiaceae family), and the EO of manuka (Leptospermum scoparium, Myrtaceae family), have antifungal activity in vitro against some clinically prevalent species of Candida. (2) Methods: The antifungal activity was studied by the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum lethal concentration (MLC) against five Candida strains. The effect in dimorphic transition of Candida albicans was also evaluated for the two plants with higher antimicrobial behavior. (3) Results: C. chinensis decoction and EO and L. scoparium EO exhibited antifungal activity in Candida spp. In addition to the fact that both C. chinensis decoction and EO proved strong antifungal activity, L. scoparium EO also displayed a relevant inhibitory effect on the dimorphic transition. (4) Conclusions: The results provided support for the potential use of C. chinensis and L. scoparium in the treatment of infections by Candida spp.

Quantitative Analysis of Berberidis Cortex via Quantitative Analysis of Multicomponents by Single Marker (QAMS) Combined with Fingerprint and Chemometrics Methods

Berberidis Cortex is rich in alkaloids, and many of them have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic activities. However, few research studies have focused on the quantitative analysis of multiple components from Berberidis Cortex. In this study, a new quality evaluation strategy for Berberidis Cortex was developed and validated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which involved single marker, fingerprint, and stoichiometric methods. Using berberine hydrochloride as an internal reference, the relative correction factors of palmatine hydrochloride, magnoline, and jatrorrhizine hydrochloride were 2.4537, 0.9783, and 1.0035, respectively, and their durabilities were also well performed. In addition, both methods mentioned above were used to compare the mass fractions of four isoquinoline alkaloids in ten batches of Berberidis Cortex from different origins. These results indicated that the approach applied in this study was accurate and feasible. The fingerprints of these ten batches of Berberidis Cortex were established, and eleven components were identified with the similarity greater than 0.993. Both cluster and principal component analysis were carried out based on the peak area of these components, the results demonstrated that these ten batches of Berberidis Cortex were divided into two groups and the distribution of the medicinal material was basically consistent. Therefore, quantitative analysis of multicomponents by single marker (QAMS) can be widely used in the quality control of Berberidis Cortex as theoretical basis.

Successful Treatment of Bullous Pemphigoid Lesions by Berberine Stamp Therapy: A Case Report and Literature Review

Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is a life-threatening autoimmune disease of the skin that is mainly characterized by a large range of tension blisters and intense itching of the skin. The 1-year mortality rate of BP was 23.5%. Superinfection caused by skin lesion ulceration is one of the important causes of disease death. Therefore, it is challenging to control infection and improve skin wound healing. Here, we report the case of an elderly woman who presented with BP and involved the oral mucosa. The patient was successfully treated with hormones combined with topical berberine, and 95% of the patients’ lesions healed completely after 1 month. In addition, we inductively analyzed the current treatments for BP to provide a reference for BP clinical treatment.

In vitro Antimicrobial Activity and the Mechanism of Berberine Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Bloodstream Infection Patients

Purpose

To investigate the antimicrobial activity of berberine and the mechanism by which it combats methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains isolated from patients with bloodstream infections.

Methods

Fifteen clinical MRSA isolates were collected, and their Multi-locus Sequence Types (MLST) were examined. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and combined antibacterial activity of berberine alone, and when combined with clindamycin and rifampicin separately, were determined. Additionally, two MRSA strains (ST239 and ST5) were selected to perform the time-killing assay and biofilm formation test. Cell wall alterations and cell membrane integrity were measured by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and electron microscopy to assess the influence on cell morphology.

Results

Our data showed berberine was effective against MRSA at MIC values varying from 256 to 64 mg*L⁻¹ for different MLST types. Berberine alone, and when combined with clindamycin and rifampicin separately, displayed excellent antibacterial activity which reduced the bacterial counts by 2lgCFU*mL within 24h and significantly weakened biofilm formation compared with control strain. Additionally, bacterial cytological profiling indicates that berberine destroyed the structure of the cell walls, membrane integrity and further changed the cell morphology with concentration increased.

Conclusion

In our study, berberine has excellent anti-MRSA activities and has synergistic antibacterial property when combined with clindamycin and rifamycin separately, and the mechanism of activities involves the destruction of cell wall and membrane.

Transcriptome sequencing revealed the inhibitory mechanism of ketoconazole on clinical Microsporum canis

Background

Microsporum canis is a zoonotic disease that can cause dermatophytosis in animals and humans.

Objectives

In clinical practice, ketoconazole (KTZ) and other imidazole drugs are commonly used to treat M. canis infection, but its molecular mechanism is not completely understood. The antifungal mechanism of KTZ needs to be studied in detail.

Methods

In this study, one strain of fungi was isolated from a canine suffering with clinical dermatosis and confirmed as M. canis by morphological observation and sequencing analysis. The clinically isolated M. canis was treated with KTZ and transcriptome sequencing was performed to identify differentially expressed genes in M. canis exposed to KTZ compared with those unexposed thereto.

Results

At half-inhibitory concentration (½MIC), compared with the control group, 453 genes were significantly up-regulated and 326 genes were significantly down-regulated (p < 0.05). Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis verified the transcriptome results of RNA sequencing. Gene ontology enrichment analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis revealed that the 3 pathways of RNA polymerase, steroid biosynthesis, and ribosome biogenesis in eukaryotes are closely related to the antifungal mechanism of KTZ.

Conclusions

The results indicated that KTZ may change cell membrane permeability, destroy the cell wall, and inhibit mitosis and transcriptional regulation through CYP51, SQL, ERG6, ATM, ABCB1, SC, KER33, RPA1, and RNP genes in the 3 pathways. This study provides a new theoretical basis for the effective control of M. canis infection and the effect of KTZ on fungi.

Synthesis, DNA-binding and antiproliferative properties of diarylquinolizinium derivatives

A series of ten 2,7- and 2,8-diarylquinolizinium derivatives was synthesized and their DNA-binding and cytotoxic properties were investigated. Except for one nitro-substituted derivative all tested diarylquinolizinium ions bind to DNA with sufficient affinity (2 × 10⁴ M^-1-2 × 10⁵ M^-1). It was shown with photometric, fluorimetric and polarimetric titrations as well as with flow-LD analysis that the ligands bind mainly by intercalation to duplex DNA, however, depending on the ligand-DNA ratio, groove binding and backbone association were also observed with some derivatives. The biological activity was further investigated with tests of cytotoxicity and antiproliferative properties towards non-tumor cells and selected cancer cells, along with cell cycle analysis and an annexin-V assay. Notably, substrates that carry donor-functionalities in the 4-position of the phenyl substituents revealed a strong, and in some cases selective, antiproliferative activity as quantified by the growth inhibition, GI₅₀, at very low micromolar and even submicromolar level both in leukemia and solid tumors.

Berberine-Loaded Thiolated Pluronic F127 Polymeric Micelles for Improving Skin Permeation and Retention

Background

Challenges associated with local antibacterial and anti-inflammatory drugs include low penetration and retention of drugs at the expected action site. Additionally, improving these challenges allows for the prevention of side effects that are caused by drug absorption into the systemic circulation and helps to safely treat local skin diseases.

Methods

In the current study, we successfully prepared a thiolated pluronic F127 polymer micelles (BTFM), which binds to keratin through a disulphide bond, to produce skin retention. In addition, the small particle size of polymer micelles promotes the penetration of carriers into the skin. The current study was divided into two experiments: an in vitro experiment; an in vivo experiment that involved the penetration of the micelle-loaded drugs into the skin of rats, the skin irritation test and the anti-inflammatory activity of the drug-loaded micelles on dimethyl benzene-induced ear edema in mice.

Results

Results from our in vitro transdermal experiment revealed that the amount of drug absorbed through the skin was decreased after the drug was loaded in the BTFM. Further, results from the vivo study, which used fluorescence microscopy to identify the location of the BTFM after penetration, revealed that there was strong fluorescence in the epidermis layer, but there was no strong fluorescence in the deep skin layer. In addition, the BTFM had a very good safety profile with no potentially hazardous skin irritation and transdermal administration of BTFM could significantly suppress ear edema induced by dimethyl benzene. Therefore, these findings indicated that BTFM reduced the amount of drug that entered the systemic circulation. Our results also demonstrated that the BTFM had a certain affinity for keratin.

Conclusion

Our experimental results suggest that the BTFM may be an effective drug carrier for local skin therapy with good safety profile.

Cognitive-enhancing effects of fibrauretine on Aβ1-42-induced Alzheimer's disease by compatibilization with ginsenosides

Fibrauretine is the main active ingredient in rattan stems of Fibraurea recisa Pierre. The aim of this study was to evaluate the cognitive-enhancing effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of fibrauretine compatibilized with ginsenosides on Alzheimer's disease (AD) induced in mice with amyloid β-protein (Aβ_1-42)_. The results showed that the spatial learning and memory abilities of AD mice were significantly enhanced after combined treatment with fibrauretine and ginsenosides using the Morris water maze test. The levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and phosphorylated Tau protein (p-Tau) in brain tissue and the levels of nitric oxide (NO), malondialdehyde (MDA), and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) in plasma were significantly increased in Aβ_1-42-induced AD mice, and these effects were reversed after combined treatment with fibrauretine and ginsenosides. By contrast, a significant increase in the levels of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was observed in the combined treatment group. The results of haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labelling (TUNEL) analysis, immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Western blot analysis showed that the apoptosis rate, Bax, nuclear factor kappa-B p65 (NF-κBp65), cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved caspase-9 expression levels were obviously decreased and that the Bcl-2 expression levels were significantly increased in the hippocampi of mice treated with fibrauretine and ginsenosides. The results of this study show that the ameliorative effect of fibrauretine against AD can be significantly enhanced by compatibilization with ginsenosides. The underlying molecular mechanisms of fibrauretine may be related to antioxidation and anti-apoptosis.

Berberine and musculoskeletal disorders: The therapeutic potential and underlying molecular mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Musculoskeletal disorders are a group of disorders that affect the joints, bones, and muscles, causing long-term disability. Berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, has been previously established to exhibit beneficial properties in preventing various diseases, including musculoskeletal disorders.

PURPOSE

This review article aims to recapitulate the therapeutic potential of berberine and its mechanism of action in treating musculoskeletal disorders.

METHODS

A wide range of literature illustrating the effects of berberine in ameliorating musculoskeletal disorders was retrieved from online electronic databases (PubMed and Medline) and reviewed.

RESULTS

Berberine may potentially retard the progression of osteoporosis, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Limited studies reported the effects of berberine in suppressing the proliferation of osteosarcoma cells. These beneficial properties of berberine are mediated in part through its ability to target multiple signaling pathways, including PKA, p38 MAPK, Wnt/β-catenin, AMPK, RANK/RANKL/OPG, PI3K/Akt, NFAT, NF-κB, Hedgehog, and oxidative stress signaling. In addition, berberine exhibited anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive properties.

CONCLUSION

The current evidence indicates that berberine may be effective in preventing musculoskeletal disorders. However, findings from in vitro and in vivo investigations await further validation from human clinical trial.

Characterization of Burkholderia sp. strain CJ1, a newly isolated berberine-degrading bacterium from rhizosphere of Coptis japonica

Burkholderia sp. strain CJ1 was newly isolated as berberine (BBR) degrading bacteria from rhizosphere of Coptis japonica. CJ1 had the ability to utilize BBR as the sole carbon source and revealed that BBR metabolism via 11-hydroxylation and demethylenation pathway. It was also revealed that the 11-hydroxylation ability of BBR and palmatine (PAL) has induced by BBR.

Palmatine: A review of pharmacological properties and pharmacokinetics

The aim of this review is to collect together the results of the numerous studies over the last two decades on the pharmacological properties of palmatine published in scientific databases like Scopus and PubMed, which are scattered across different publications. Palmatine, an isoquinoline alkaloid from the class of protoberberines, is a yellow compound present in the extracts from different representatives of Berberidaceae, Papaveraceae, Ranunculaceae, and Menispermaceae. It has been extensively used in traditional medicine of Asia in the treatment of jaundice, liver-related diseases, hypertension, inflammation, and dysentery. New findings describe its possible applications in the treatment of civilization diseases like central nervous system-related problems. This review intends to let this alkaloid come out from the shade of a more frequently described alkaloid: berberine. The toxicity, pharmacokinetics, and biological activities of this protoberberine alkaloid will be developed in this work.

Palmatine inhibits Zika virus infection by disrupting virus binding, entry, and stability

Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging vector-borne virus that is associated with severe congenital cerebral anomalies in fetuses and paralytic Guillain-Barré syndrome in adults. In the current global health crisis, there are no vaccines or therapeutics available for the treatment of ZIKV infection. In the present study, we evaluated the efficacy of the protoberberine alkaloid, palmatine, in inhibiting ZIKV and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). Palmatine was shown to bind to restricted viruses, inhibit ZIKV infection, and resist ZIKV-induced cytopathic effects. Palmatine was also shown to inhibit JEV infection in multiple cell lines. Overall, the effects of palmatine in disrupting ZIKV binding, entry, and stability indicate that this small molecule would be a good starting point for the development of treatments aimed at inhibiting ZIKV infection.

Antimicrobial characteristics of Berberine against prosthetic joint infection-related Staphylococcus aureus of different multi-locus sequence types

BACKGROUND

Staphylococcal aureus (S. aureus) has become the leading causative pathogen of Prosthetic Joint Infection (PJI), which is the most devastating complication after arthroplasty surgeries. Due to the biofilm formation ability and emergence of multiple-drugs resistance strains of S. aureus, it has become an urgency to find new anti-staphylococcal agents to establish effective prophylaxis and treatment strategy for PJI. Extracted from a traditional Chinese herb, berberine is proved active in inhibiting S. aureus, while whether it exerts the same effect on PJI-related S. aureus remains unknown. This study aims to investigate the antimicrobial activity of berbrine against clinical derived PJI-related S. aureus and whether its inhibiting efficacy is associated with subtypes of S. aureus.

METHODS

Eighteen PJI-associated S. aureus were collected and their Multi-locus Sequence Types (MLST) and susceptibility to berberine both in planktonic and biofilm form were investigated. Additionally, one S. aureus strain (ST1792) was selected from the group and its transcriptomic profiling in berberine incubation was performed. The statistical analyses were conducted using Student's t-test with SPSS 24.0(SPSS, IBM, USA). The data were expressed as the means ± standard deviation. Values of p < 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

It was found out that the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration values of PJI-related S. aureus varied in a broad range (from 64 to 512 μg/ml) among different MLST subtypes and the bacteria were able to regain growth after 24 h in berberine of MIC value or higher concentrations. In addition, sub-inhibitory concentrations of berberine surprisingly enhanced biofilm formation in some S. aureus strains.

CONCLUSION

Traditional medicine is utilised by a large number of individuals, which provides abundant resources for modern medical science. In our study, berberine was found bactericidal against PJI related S. aureus, however, its antibacterial property was impacted by the MLST subtypes of the bacteria, both in planktonic and biofilm growth forms.

Effects of palmatine hydrochloride mediated photodynamic therapy on oral squamous cell carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a common malignant tumor, accounting for about 7% of all malignant tumors. Palmatine hydrochloride (PaH) is the alkaloid constituent of Fibraurea tinctoria Lour. The present study aims to investigate the antitumor effect of photodynamic therapy (PDT) with PaH (PaH-PDT) on human OSCC cell lines both in vitro and in vivo. The results indicate that PaH-PDT exhibited a potent phototoxic effect in cell proliferation and produced cell apoptosis. PaH-PDT increased the percentage of cells in the G0/G1 phase and decreased the CDK2 and Cyclin E1 protein level. In addition, PaH-PDT markedly increased the generation of intracellular ROS, which can be suppressed using the ROS scavenger N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Furthermore, PaH-PDT increased the expression of p53 protein in vitro and in vivo. In vivo experiments revealed that the PaH-PDT resulted in an effective inhibition of tumor growth and prolonged the survival time of tumor-bearing mice. Moreover, no obvious signs of side effects or a drop in body weight was observed. These results suggested that PaH was a promising sensitizer that can be combined with light to produce significant anti-tumor effects in oral squamous cell carcinoma via enhanced ROS production and up-regulated expression of p53.

Size-tunable Au@Ag nanoparticles for colorimetric and SERS dual-mode sensing of palmatine in traditional Chinese medicine

Palmatine is a protoberberine alkaloid separated from several plants and application as an anti-inflammatory and antibacterial agent in the therapy of gastrointestinal and genitourinary disorder. Thus, the fast quantification of palmatine is important in clinic medical assays. Herein, we report simple, fast and sensitive colorimetric visualization and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) dual-mode detection of palmatine basing on bimetallic size tunable silver shell capped gold nanoparticles (Au@Ag NPs). Interesting, the best signals output for dual-mode sensing of palmatine were both 5 nm Ag shell thickness of Au@Ag NPs. Meanwhile, we found that the addition of NaHSO₄ significantly improves the aggregating sensitivity of Au@Ag NPs to trace palmatine. Upon exposure to 0.1 μM level palmatine, NaHSO₄-optimized Au@Ag NPs solution exhibits a highly sensitive color change from orange to green and rapid aggregation kinetics within the initial 5 min, which can directly be seen with the naked eye and monitored by UV-vis absorbance spectra. In addition, we measured palmatine by SERS with the excellent enhancement effect of Au@Ag NPs for further increase the sensitivity and selectivity. More importantly, other protoberberine alkaloids do not interfere with this dual-mode sensor due to the different interaction force between Au@Ag NPs and these alkaloids, and the applicability of the sensor is well demonstrated in real samples with satisfactory results. This provide a fast and simple assay for the rapid detection of palmatine in traditional Chinese medicine, the limit of detection (LOD) is 0.13 μM by the naked eye and 0.10 μM by UV-vis spectroscopy. Therefore, the size-tunable of NaHSO₄-optimized Au@Ag NPs can be used not only as a naked-eye sensor of palmatine, but also as a highly selective SERS probe.

Phellodendri Cortex: A Phytochemical, Pharmacological, and Pharmacokinetic Review

Background

Phellodendri Cortex (PC) or Huang Bai. According to the scientific database of China Plant Species and Chinese pharmacopeia 2015 edition, PC has two main species which are Phellodendron amurense Rupr (PAR) or “Guan Huang bai” in Chinese and Phellodendron chinense Schneid (PCS) or “Chuan Huang bai” in Chinese. The crude drugs of PAR and PCS are also called Phellodendri amurensis cortex (PAC) and Phellodendri chinense cortex (PCC), respectively. The medicinal part of the plant is the dried trunk bark. PC has comprehensive therapeutic effects which include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, hypotensive, antiarrhythmic, antioxidant, and antipyretic agents. The exact ingredients in PC and its species are not fully summarised.

Aim of the Study

This study was designed to review and evaluate the pharmacological actions of compounds and to explore the pharmacokinetic knowledge of PC and its species and to also identify the chemical compound(s) with a potential therapeutic effect on atopic dermatitis.

Methods

“Huang Bai” and its English, botanical, and pharmaceutical names were used as keywords to perform database search in Encyclopaedia of traditional Chinese Medicines, PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science, and China Network Knowledge Infrastructure. The data selection criteria included all the studies that were related to the phytochemical, pharmacological, and pharmacokinetic perspectives of PC and its species or their active constituents. More importantly, the voucher number has been provided to ensure the genuine bark of PC used as the medicinal part in the studies.

Results

140 compounds were summarized from PC and its species: specifically, 18 compounds from PCC, 44 compounds from PCS, 34 compounds from PAC, and 84 compounds from PAR. Obacunone and obaculactone are probably responsible for antiatopic dermatitis effect. PC and its species possess a broad spectrum of pharmacological actions including anti-inflammatory effect, antibacterial effect, antiviral effect, antitumor effect, antigout effect, antiulcer effect, neuroprotective effect, and antiatopic dermatitis effect. PC could widely distribute in plasma, liver, spleen, kidney, and brain. Berberine may be responsible for the toxic effect on the susceptible users with hemolytic disease or in the peripartum and neonatal period.

Conclusions

The compounds of the crude bark of PC and its subspecies have showcased a wide range of pharmacological effects. Pharmacological efficacies of PC are supported by its diverse class of alkaloid, limonoid, phenolic acid, quinic acid, lignan, and flavonoid. Obacunone and obaculactone could be the bioactive compounds for atopic dermatitis management. PC and its subspecies are generally safe to use but extra care is required for certain conditions and group of people.

Strong Synergism of Palmatine and Fluconazole/Itraconazole Against Planktonic and Biofilm Cells of Candida Species and Efflux-Associated Antifungal Mechanism

Fungal infections caused by Candida albicans and non-albicans Candida [NAC] species are becoming a growing threat in immunodeficient population, people with long-term antibiotic treatment and patients enduring kinds of catheter intervention. The resistance to one or more than one conventional antifungal agents contributes greatly to the widespread propagation of Candida infections. The severity of fungal infection requires the discovery of novel antimycotics and the extensive application of combination strategy. In this study, a group of Candida standard and clinical strains including C. albicans as well as several NAC species were employed to evaluate the antifungal potentials of palmatine (PAL) alone and in combination with fluconazole (FLC)/itraconazole (ITR) by microdilution method, checkerboard assay, gram staining, spot assay, and rhodamine 6G efflux test. Subsequently, the expressions of transporter-related genes, namely CDR1, CDR2, MDR1, and FLU1 for C. albicans, CDR1 and MDR1 for Candida tropicalis and Candida parapsilosis, ABC1 and ABC2 for Candida krusei, CDR1, CDR2, and SNQ2 for Candida glabrata were analyzed by qRT-PCR. The susceptibility test showed that PAL presented strong synergism with FLC and ITR with fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) in a range of 0.0049-0.75 for PAL+FLC and 0.0059-0.3125 for PAL+ITR in planktonic cells, 0.125-0.375 for PAL+FLC and 0.0938-0.3125 for PAL+ITR in biofilms. The susceptibility results were also confirmed by gram staining and spot assay. After combinations, a vast quantity of rhodamine 6G could not be pumped out as considerably intracellular red fluorescence was accumulated. Meanwhile, the expressions of efflux-associated genes were evaluated and presented varying degrees of inhibition. These results indicated that PAL was a decent antifungal synergist to promote the antifungal efficacy of azoles (such as FLC and ITR), and the underlying antifungal mechanism might be linked with the inhibition of efflux pumps and the elevation of intracellular drug content.

In Vitro Study of Antiamoebic Activity of Methanol Extracts of Argemone mexicana on Trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica HM1-IMSS

Infections caused by parasites in humans represent one of the main public health concerns. Amoebiasis, a parasitic infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica (E. histolytica), is considered endemic in Mexico, where Argemone mexicana (A. mexicana) has been used in traditional medicine to treat intestinal parasitic diseases. The objective of this work was to evaluate the potential biological activity of A. mexicana on E. histolytica. For this purpose, a methanolic extract was prepared from A. mexicana leaves, and a differential fractionation was carried out with solvents of different polarities. The inhibitory capacities of the extract and its fractions were evaluated in vitro using HM1-IMSS, a strain of Entamoeba histolytica. A. mexicana extract was found to have a growth-inhibiting activity for E. histolytica, showing IC50 = 78.39 μg/mL. The extract was characterized phytochemically, and the methanolic extract fractions were analyzed by liquid chromatography (HPLC) and mass spectrometry (MS). Berberine and jatrorrhizine were present in the active fractions, and these compounds may be responsible for the antiparasitic activity. The identification of amoebicidal activity of A. mexicana on E. histolytica gives support to the traditional use. Further studies with berberine and jatrorrhizine will be carried out to understand the mechanism involved.

Mahonia oiwakensis Extract and Its Bioactive Compounds Exert Anti-Inflammatory Activities and VEGF Production Through M2-Macrophagic Polarization and STAT6 Activation

Macrophages play an indispensable role in the host immune defense. Macrophages can undergo polarization into classically (M1) and alternatively (M2) activated macrophages. M1 macrophages activate immune and inflammatory response, while M2 macrophages are involved in tissue remodeling. Mahonia oiwakensis (Mo) is a herbal medicine in Asia used for its anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties; however, the mechanism is unclear. This study analyzed the effect of Mo extracts and its effects on the polarization of both macrophage RAW264.7 cells and mouse splenic macrophages. Water (Mo-W) and EtOH extracts (Mo-E) did not change the viability of RAW264.7 cells, whereas Mo-E inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production. The major compounds, berberine and palmatine, decreased the viability and NO levels of cells. The secretion of inflammatory cytokines CXCL16, IL-6, L-selectin, MCP1, RANTES, and sTNF-R1 was downregulated, whereas the production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was upregulated by Mo-E, berberine, and palmatine treatments. Mo-E, berberine, and palmatine stimulated the expression of macrophage CD68 and M2-type CD204 markers, decreased M1-mediated p-STAT1 and NF-κB, and increased M2-mediated p-STAT6 expression. Similar effects on M2 polarization were also observed in splenic macrophages from mice. In conclusion, Mo-E, berberine, and palmatine modulated macrophages through the suppression of M1-mediated inflammation and the recruitment of M2-mediated VEGF secretion and STAT6 expression.

A Novel Method to Mask the Bitter Taste of Berberine Hydrochloride: Powder Surface Modification

Background:

Berberine hydrochloride (BH) is widely used as a nonprescription drug to treat diarrhea without drug resistance and side effects worldwide. However, its drastic bitterness affects patient compliance severely. Hence, it is essential to mask the bitter taste of BH.

Objective:

Powder surface modification technology is attempted to mask the bitterness of BH through changing the surface properties in vibromill. The purpose of this study was to apply this technology to mask the bitterness of BH and improve the patient compliance.

Materials and Methods:

Initially, to prepare the modifier-BH composites, some parameters were optimized, including type of modifiers, ratio between BH and modifiers, and composite time. Then, the contact angles, scanning electron microscopy, and infrared (IR) spectroscopy were utilized to evaluate the microstructure of composites. Moreover, electronic tongue measurement, animal performance test, and bitterness evaluation methods were applied to evaluate the masking effect.

Results:

Based on the results of bitter taste evaluations, mannitol was chosen as the best modifier, and the optimal ratio of BH and mannitol was 6:4 with grinding together for 2 min in vibromill. For the composites prepared by this process, the IR spectroscopy and surface properties were similar with that of mannitol, and the microstructure was also demonstrated that small particles of mannitol successfully coated on the surface of BH. Special structure of the composites decreased the contact area between BH and external media and finally inhibited the bitterness. This effect was confirmed by three different kinds of methods.

Conclusion:

Our study provides a novel method to mask the bitter taste of drugs. It will be of great interest to pharmaceutical experts and pharmacists.

SUMMARY

Powder surface modification, a novel and different from previous technology, is used to prepare modifier-berberine hydrochloride composites to mask the bitter taste of BH

Electronic tongue measurement, animal performance test, human sensory test, and chemical evaluation method were simultaneously applied to evaluate the masking effect

A novel method to mask the bitter taste of drugs was provided.

Abbreviations used: BH:Berberine hydrochloride; CDI: Clostridium difficile infection; ODT: Orally disintegrating tablets; HPLC: High-performance liquid chromatography; CAs: Contact angles; SEM: Scanning electron microscopy; IR: Infrared spectrogram.

Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Shuanghua Baihe Tablets to Prevent Oral Mucositis in Patients With Nasopharyngeal Cancer Undergoing Chemoradiation Therapy

PURPOSE

Oral mucositis is a common unpreventable complication associated with chemoradiation therapy. Shuanghua Baihe tablets have been approved by the Chinese Food and Drug Administration for treating recurrent oral mucosa ulceration. This study assessed whether Shuanghua Baihe tablets could prevent oral mucositis during chemoradiation therapy for locally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

This multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was conducted at 11 hospitals in China between January 22, 2014, and September 21, 2015. Eligible patients (N=240, 18-70 years old) with pathologically diagnosed locally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma were randomly assigned (computer-block randomization; 1:1) to receive Shuanghua Baihe tablets or a placebo (4 tablets, 3 times a day, for 7 weeks) at the initiation of chemoradiation therapy. Administration of Shuanghua Baihe tablets could be ended if grade 3 or higher oral mucositis developed and patients were unwilling to continue taking the drug. The primary endpoints were oral mucositis incidence and latency.

RESULTS

The incidence of oral mucositis during this study was significantly lower in the Shuanghua Baihe group (85.0%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 78.6%-91.4%) than in the placebo group (96.6%; 95% CI, 93.4%-99.9%; P=.0028). The median latency period was 28 days in the Shuanghua Baihe group and 14 days in the placebo group (hazard ratio, 0.17; 95% CI, 0.12-0.23; P<.0001). Compared with placebo, Shuanghua Baihe tablets significantly reduced the oral mucositis severity scores recorded by the investigators (Oral Mucositis Score, 24.0 [range, 0.0-67.8] vs 57.5 [range, 0.0-98.0]; P<.0001), full-time nurses (Oral Assessment Guide score, 462.0 [range, 392.0-664.7] vs 520.4 [range, 392.0-714.0]; P<.0001), and patients (score for soreness of mouth and throat, 4.0 [range, 0-10] vs 6.0 [range, 0-10]; P<.0001). No serious adverse events were observed, and the incidence of mild or moderate gastrointestinal adverse events associated with Shuanghua Baihe tablets was 3.3%. The short-term response rate was similar in patients receiving Shuanghua Baihe tablets and those receiving placebo during chemoradiation therapy during this study.

CONCLUSIONS

Shuanghua Baihe tablets reduced the occurrence, latency, and severity of oral mucositis in patients with nasopharyngeal cancer during chemoradiation therapy treatment.

Immunoregulatory effects of the traditional Dai prescription Yajieshaba on food allergic mice

The Dai prescription Yajieshaba is widely used in Traditional Dai Medicine to treat food allergies and intolerance. However, information on the active chemical ingredients, effects and mechanisms of action of Yajieshaba is limited. The present study aimed to elucidate the effects and underlying mechanisms of Yajieshaba in the treatment of food allergies. Liquid chromatography with a diode array detector was used to measure the levels of palmatine and berberine, the active ingredients of Yajieshaba. A food allergy model was established in female BALB/c mice by three injections of ovalbumin (OVA) at 0, 48, and 96 h. OVA-sensitized mice recieved no treatments (control), Yajieshaba, loratadine, palmatine or berberine. The scratching frequency, serum immunoglobulin (Ig)G, IgE, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, IL-17, IL-21, interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α levels were assessed at 50 and 98 h. The percentage of regulatory T cells (Tregs) was evaluated by flow cytometry at 98 h. The scratching frequency induced by OVA was significantly suppressed in mice treated with loratadine, palmatine, berberine or 3.50 and 4.70 g/kg Yajieshaba. The frequency of CD4⁺CD25⁺Treg in the spleen increased from 6.80% in mice in the control group to 12.50% in mice treated with 4.70 g/kg body weight Yajieshaba. Mice treated with palmatine or 4.70 g/kg body weight Yajieshaba had increased forkhead box p3 expression compared with those in the control group. Treatment with Yajieshaba decreased the scratching frequency and increased CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ Treg frequency in the spleen. This indicated that symptoms of allergic reaction were alleviated following Yajieshaba treatment. Palmatine was identified as one of the major active components of Yajieshaba. The present study identified the possible mechanism through which Yajieshaba treatment may alleviate food allergy symptoms.

The Effects of Berberine and Palmatine on Efflux Pumps Inhibition with Different Gene Patterns in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolated from Burn Infections

BACKGROUND

Related Multidrug Resistance (MDR) to efflux pumps is a significant problem in treating infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa). Plant compounds have been identified as Pump Inhibitors (EPIs). In the current study, the potential effect of Berberine and Palmatine as EPIs were investigated on efflux pump inhibition through focusing on different gene patterns in P. aeruginosa isolated from burn infections.

METHODS

All isolates were collected and identified using the standard biochemical tests. Antimicrobial sensitivity was performed based on disk agar diffusion method for 12 antibiotics. MIC-MBC tests were also performed based on the broth microdilution method to detect synergistic relationship between ciprofloxacin, Berberine and Palmatine. Detection of mexA, mexB, mexC, mexD, mexE, mexF and mexX was conducted by PCR assay. Fisher's Exact test and Logistic Regression were used as statistical tools.

RESULTS

A total of 60 P. aeruginosa isolates were collected. The highest and lowest levels of resistance were found to be respectively against clindamycin and tigecycline. Comparing the MIC with MBC distribution, it was found that Berberine and Palmatine lower the MIC-MBC level of ciprofloxacin. The PCR results indicated that the highest frequency is about MexAB-OprM operon. The statistical analysis among different gene patterns of efflux pumps showed that there were no significant relationships between the effectiveness of Berberine and Palmatine (p>0.05).

CONCLUSION

It can be speculated that Berberine and Palmatine both act as EPIs and can be used as auxiliary treatments with the purpose of increasing the effect of available antibiotics as well as decreasing the emergence of MDR bacteria. The efficiency of these combinations should be studied further under in vivo conditions to have a more comprehensive conclusion regarding this issue.

Cationic lipid emulsions as potential bioadhesive carriers for ophthalmic delivery of palmatine

Palmatine (PM) is a potent anti-infective agent used to treat eye diseases. However, PM is less effective for ocular application due to short residence time within the eyes. This study aimed to develop a cationic lipid emulsions (CLEs) for ophthalmic delivery of PM and evaluate its suitability in infection treatment. PM-loaded CLEs (PM-CLEs) were prepared through emulsifying/high-pressure homogenisation and characterised by particle size, ζ potential and morphology. The resulting PM-CLEs possessed a particle size of 192 nm and ζ potential of 45 mV around. In vitro release illustrated that PM was released less from CLEs. Corneal bioadhesion test showed that PM-CLEs exhibited an enhanced ocular residence time. Improved anti-infective activity was achieved in the model of fungus-induced keratitis. Furthermore, PM-CLEs demonstrated predominant cellular uptake and internalisation in the corneal epithelial cells. These results provide proof of concept that CLEs are promising bioadhesive carriers for ophthalmic delivery of PM.

Berberis Vulgaris and Berberine: An Update Review

Berberine is an isoquinoline alkaloid present in several plants, including Coptis sp. and Berberis sp. Berberine is a customary component in Chinese medicine, and is characterized by a diversity of pharmacological effects. An extensive search in electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Ovid, Wiley, ProQuest, ISI, and Science Direct) were used to identify the pharmacological and clinical studies on Berberis vulgaris and berberine, during 2008 to 2015, using 'berberine' and 'Berberis vulgaris' as search words. We found more than 1200 new article studying the properties and clinical uses of berberine and B. vulgaris, for treating tumor, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hyperlipidemia, inflammation, bacterial and viral infections, cerebral ischemia trauma, mental disease, Alzheimer disease, osteoporosis, and so on. In this article, we have updated the pharmacological effects of B. vulgaris and its active constituent, berberine. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Palmatine hydrochloride mediated photodynamic inactivation of breast cancer MCF-7 cells: Effectiveness and mechanism of action

Breast cancer is one of the commonest malignant tumors threatening to women. The present study aims to investigate the effect of photodynamic action of palmatine hydrochloride (PaH), a naturally occurring photosensitizer isolated from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), on apoptosis of breast cancer cells. Firstly, cellular uptake of PaH in MCF-7 cells was measured and the cytotoxicity of PaH itself on breast cancer MCF-7 cells was estimated using the 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Subcellular localization of PaH in MCF-7 cells was observed using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). For photodynamic treatment, MCF-7 cells were incubated with PaH and then irradiated by visible light (470nm) from a LED light source. Photocytotoxicity was investigated 24h after photodynamic treatment using MTT assay. Cell apoptosis was analyzed 18h after photodynamic treatment using flow cytometry with Annexin V/PI staining. Nuclear was stained using Hoechst 33342 and observed under a fluorescence microscope. Intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was studied by measuring the fluorescence of 2, 7-dichlorofluorescein (DCF) using a flow cytometry. Results showed that PaH treatment alone had no or minimum cytotoxicity to MCF-7 cells after incubation for 24h in the dark. After incubation for 40min, the cellular uptake of PaH reached to the maximum, and PaH mainly located in mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum of MCF-7 cells. Photodynamic treatment of PaH demonstrated a significant photocytotoxicity on MCF-7 cells, induced remarkable cell apoptosis and significantly increased intracellular ROS level. Our findings demonstrated that PaH as a naturally occurring photosensitizer induced cell apoptosis and significantly killed MCF-7 cells.

Photodynamic action of palmatine hydrochloride on colon adenocarcinoma HT-29 cells

Palmatine hydrochloride (PaH) is a natural active compound from a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The present study aims to evaluate the effect of PaH as a new photosensitizer on colon adenocarcinoma HT-29 cells upon light irradiation. Firstly, the absorption and fluorescence spectra of PaH were measured using a UV-vis spectrophotometer and RF-1500PC spectrophotometer, respectively. Singlet oxygen ((1)O2) production of PaH was determined using 1, 3-diphenylisobenzofuran (DPBF). Dark toxicity of PaH was estimated using the 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Cellular uptake of PaH in HT-29 cells was detected at different time intervals. Subellular localization of PaH in HT-29 cells was observed using confocal laser fluorescence microscopy. For photodynamic treatment, HT-29 cells were incubated with PaH and then irradiated by visible light (470nm) from a LED light source. Photocytotoxicity was investigated 24h after photodynamic treatment using MTT assay. Cell apoptosis was observed 18h after photodynamic treatment using a flow cytometry with Annexin V/PI staining. Results showed that PaH has an absorption peak in the visible region from 400nm to 500nm and a fluorescence emission peak at 406nm with an excitation wavelength of 365nm. PaH was activated by the 470nm visible light from a LED light source to produce (1)O2. Dark toxicity showed that PaH alone treatment had no cytotoxicity to HT-29 cancer cells and NIH-3T3 normal cells after incubation for 24h. After incubation for 40min, the cellular uptake of PaH reached to the maximum and PaH was located in mitochondria. Photodynamic treatment of PaH demonstrated a significant photocytotoxicity on HT-29 cells. The rate of cell death increased significantly in a PaH concentration-dependent and light dose-dependent manner. Further evaluation revealed that the early and late apoptotic rate of HT-29 cells increased remarkably up to 21.54% and 5.39% after photodynamic treatment of PaH at the concentration of 5μM and energy density of 10.8J/cm(2). Our findings demonstrated that PaH as a naturally occurring photosensitizer has potential in photodynamic therapy on colon adenocarcinoma.