High molecular weight of polysaccharides from Hericium erinaceus against amyloid beta-induced neurotoxicity

Experimental Models in Unraveling the Biological Mechanisms of Mushroom-Derived Bioactives against Aging- and Lifestyle-Related Diseases: A Review

Mushrooms have garnered considerable interest among researchers due to their immense nutritional and therapeutic properties. The presence of biologically active primary and secondary metabolites, which includes several micronutrients, including vitamins, essential minerals, and other dietary fibers, makes them an excellent functional food. Moreover, the dietary inclusion of mushrooms has been reported to reduce the incidence of aging- and lifestyle-related diseases, such as cancer, obesity, and stroke, as well as to provide overall health benefits by promoting immunomodulation, antioxidant activity, and enhancement of gut microbial flora. The multifunctional activities of several mushroom extracts have been evaluated by both in vitro and in vivo studies using cell lines along with invertebrate and vertebrate model systems to address human diseases and disorders at functional and molecular levels. Although each model has its own strengths as well as lacunas, various studies have generated a plethora of data regarding the regulating players that are modulated in order to provide various protective activities; hence, this review intends to compile and provide an overview of the plausible mechanism of action of mushroom-derived bioactives, which will be helpful in future medicinal explorations.

Growing attention on the toxicity of Chinese herbal medicine: a bibliometric analysis from 2013 to 2022

Introduction: Despite the clinical value of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM), restricted comprehension of its toxicity limits the secure and efficacious application. Previous studies primarily focused on exploring specific toxicities within CHM, without providing an overview of CHM's toxicity. The absence of a quantitative assessment of focal points renders the future research trajectory ambiguous. Therefore, this study aimed to reveal research trends and areas of concern for the past decade. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on publications related to CHM and toxicity over the past decade from Web of Science Core Collection database. The characteristics of the publication included publication year, journal, institution, funding, keywords, and citation counts were recorded. Co-occurrence analysis and trend topic analysis based on bibliometric analysis were conducted on keywords and citations. Results: A total of 3,225 publications were analyzed. Number of annal publications increased over the years, with the highest number observed in 2022 (n = 475). The Journal of Ethnopharmacology published the most publications (n = 425). The most frequently used toxicity classifications in keywords were hepatotoxicity (n = 119) or drug-induced liver injury (n = 48), and nephrotoxicity (n = 40). Co-occurrence analysis revealed relatively loose connections between CHM and toxicity, and their derivatives. Keywords emerging from trend topic analysis for the past 3 years (2019-2022) included ferroptosis, NLRP3 inflammasome, machine learning, network pharmacology, traditional uses, and pharmacology. Conclusion: Concerns about the toxicity of CHM have increased in the past decade. However, there remains insufficient studies that directly explore the intersection of CHM and toxicity. Hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, as the most concerned toxicity classifications associated with CHM, warrant more in-depth investigations. Apoptosis was the most concerned toxicological mechanism. As a recent increase in attention, exploring the mechanisms of ferroptosis in nephrotoxicity and NLRP3 inflammasome in hepatotoxicity could provide valuable insights. Machine learning and network pharmacology are potential methods for future studies.

The Acute and Chronic Effects of Lion's Mane Mushroom Supplementation on Cognitive Function, Stress and Mood in Young Adults: A Double-Blind, Parallel Groups, Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Given the bioactive properties and limited work to date, Hericium erinaceus (Lion's mane) shows promise in improving cognitive function and mood. However, much of the human research has concentrated on chronic supplementation in cognitively compromised cohorts.

OBJECTIVE

The current pilot study investigated the acute and chronic (28-day) cognitive and mood-enhancing effects of Hericium erinaceus in a healthy, young adult cohort.

DESIGN

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-groups design investigated the acute (60 min post dose) and chronic (28-day intervention) effects of 1.8 g Hericium erinaceus in 41 healthy adults aged 18-45 years.

RESULTS

Analysis revealed that following a single dose of Hericium erinaceus, participants performed quicker on the Stroop task (p = 0.005) at 60 min post dose. A trend towards reduced subjective stress was observed following 28-day supplementation (p = 0.051).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings tentatively suggest that Hericium erinaceus may improve speed of performance and reduce subjective stress in healthy, young adults. However, null and limited negative findings were also observed. Given the small sample size, these findings should be interpreted with caution. Further investigation in larger sample sizes is crucial, however the findings of this trial offer a promising avenue of interest.

Neurotrophic and Neuroprotective Effects of Hericium erinaceus

Hericium erinaceus is a valuable mushroom known for its strong bioactive properties. It shows promising potential as an excellent neuroprotective agent, capable of stimulating nerve growth factor release, regulating inflammatory processes, reducing oxidative stress, and safeguarding nerve cells from apoptosis. The active compounds in the mushroom, such as erinacines and hericenones, have been the subject of research, providing evidence of their neuroprotective effects. Further research and standardization processes for dietary supplements focused on H. erinaceus are essential to ensuring effectiveness and safety in protecting the nervous system. Advancements in isolation and characterization techniques, along with improved access to pure analytical standards, will play a critical role in achieving standardized, high-quality dietary supplements based on H. erinaceus. The aim of this study is to analyze the protective and nourishing effects of H. erinaceus on the nervous system and present the most up-to-date research findings related to this topic.

Lactic Acid Bacteria-Derived Exopolysaccharides Mitigate the Oxidative Response via the NRF2-KEAP1 Pathway in PC12 Cells

Parabiotics, including L-EPSs, have been administered to patients with neurodegenerative disorders. However, the antioxidant properties of L-EPSs against H2O2-induced oxidative stress in PC12 cells have not been studied. Herein, we aimed to investigate the antioxidant properties of the L-EPSs, their plausible targets, and their mechanism of action. We first determined the amount of L-EPSs in Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus B3 and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum GD2 using spectrophotometry. Afterwards, we studied their effects on TDH, TOS/TAS, antioxidant enzyme activities, and intracellular ROS level. Finally, we used qRT-PCR and ELISA to determine the effects of L-EPSs on the NRF2-KEAP1 pathway. According to our results, the L-EPS groups exhibited significantly higher total thiol activity, native thiol activity, disulfide activity, TAS levels, antioxidant enzyme levels, and gene expression levels (GCLC, HO-1, NRF2, and NQO1) than did the H2O2 group. Additionally, the L-EPS groups caused significant reductions in TOS levels and KEAP1 gene expression levels compared with those in the H2O2 group. Our results indicate that H2O2-induced oxidative stress was modified by L-EPSs. Thus, we revealed that L-EPSs, which regulate H2O2-induced oxidative stress, could have applications in the field of neurochemistry.

Commercial scale production of Yamabushitake mushroom (Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers. 1797) using rubber and bamboo sawdust substrates in tropical regions

Yamabushitake (Hericium erinaceus) is one of the most sought out mushrooms that is widely used for both direct consumption and medicinal purposes. While its demand increases worldwide, cultivation of the mushroom is limited to temperate areas and its production in tropical regions has never been explored. The aim of this study was to test the utilization of rubber and bamboo sawdust, alone or as a substrate mixture, for industrial scale Yamabushitake mushroom production. Five substrate treatments with various ratios of the two sawdust were compared for their physicochemical properties in relation to mushroom productivity. The highest mushroom fresh and dry (113.22 and 23.25 g, respectively), biological efficiency (42.61%), and cap size (9.53 cm) were obtained from the substrates containing 100% rubber sawdust, with the mushroom yield decreasing proportional to the ratio of bamboo sawdust. The 100% rubber sawdust substrate provided a higher initial organic matter and carbon content together with C:N ratio at 63.2%, 36.7% and 65.48, respectively, whereas the 100% bamboo sawdust provided higher nitrogen content (1.03%), which was associated with lower mushroom yield but higher number of fruiting bodies. As in the 100% rubber sawdust substrate, a comparable mushroom yield and growth attributes were also obtained in the 3:1 rubber-bamboo sawdust mixture substrate. Principle component analysis of the measured variables indicated a strong influence of substrate C:N ratio before spawning and the change in substrate electrical conductivity and N content after cultivation to the variation in mushroom productivity among the treatments. The results demonstrate the applicability of rubber sawdust and its combination with up to 25% of bamboo sawdust for Yamabushitake mushroom cultivation and provide the basis for substrate optimization in the tropical Yamabushitake mushroom industry through a circular economy framework.

Unveiling the Therapeutic Potentials of Mushroom Bioactive Compounds in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) stands as a prevailing neurodegenerative condition (NDs), leading to the gradual deterioration of brain cells and subsequent declines in memory, thinking, behavior, and emotion. Despite the intensive research efforts and advances, an effective curative treatment for the disease has not yet been found. Mushrooms, esteemed globally for their exquisite flavors and abundant nutritional benefits, also hold a wealth of health-promoting compounds that contribute to improving AD health. These compounds encompass polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, terpenoids, phenols, and various other bioactive substances. Particularly noteworthy are the potent neuroprotective small molecules found in mushrooms, such as ergothioneine, erinacine, flavonoids, alkaloids, ergosterol, and melanin, which warrant dedicated scrutiny for their therapeutic potential in combating AD. This review summarizes such positive effects of mushroom bioactive compounds on AD, with a hope to contribute to the development of functional foods as an early dietary intervention for this neurodegenerative disease.

Comparison of structure and neuroprotective ability of low molecular weight galactomannans from Sesbania cannabina obtained by different extraction technologies

Low-molecular-weight-galactomannan (LMW-GM) is an edible polysaccharide with various biological activities. However, it is used in the field of neuroprotection. In this study, two types of LMW-GMs from Sesbania cannabina were obtained by gluconic acid extraction (GA-LMW-GM) and enzymatic hydrolysis (GMOS). The structure of GA-LMW-GM and GMOS were identified using different nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. The antioxidant and neuroprotective activities of GA-LMW-GM and GMOS were evaluated in vitro/vivo. The results showed that both GA-LMW-GM and GMOS possess good free radicals scavenging ability in vitro with IC₅₀ values of 1.9 mg/mL and 4.9 mg/mL for 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals 2.8 mg/mL and 4.4 mg/mL for O₂^•- radicals, respectively. However, GA-LMW-GM was more effective at scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) in vivo and protecting the fundamental growth (with a recovery capability of 62.5%) and locomotor functions (with recovery capability of 193.7%) of zebrafish with neurological damage induced by Bisphenol AF.

Hericium erinaceus, a medicinal fungus with a centuries-old history: Evidence in gastrointestinal diseases

Hericium erinaceus is an edible and medicinal mushroom commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. Several studies have highlighted its therapeutic potential for gastrointestinal disorders such as gastritis and inflammatory bowel diseases. In addition, some components of this mushroom appear to possess strong antineoplastic capabilities against gastric and colorectal cancer. This review aims to analyse all available evidence on the digestive therapeutic potential of this fungus as well as the possible underlying molecular mechanisms.

Antioxidant Compounds from Edible Mushrooms as Potential Candidates for Treating Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases

The last century has seen an increase in our life expectancy. As a result, various age-related diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), have emerged, representing new challenges to society. Oxidative stress (OS), a condition of redox imbalance resulting from excessive production of reactive oxygen species, represents a common feature that characterizes the brains of elderly people, thus contributing to NDs. Consequently, antioxidant supplementation or dietary intake of antioxidant-containing foods could represent an effective preventive and therapeutic intervention to maintain the integrity and survival of neurons and to counteract the neurodegenerative pathologies associated with aging. Food contains numerous bioactive molecules with beneficial actions for human health. To this purpose, a wide range of edible mushrooms have been reported to produce different antioxidant compounds such as phenolics, flavonoids, polysaccharides, vitamins, carotenoids, ergothioneine, and others, which might be used for dietary supplementation to enhance antioxidant defenses and, consequently, the prevention of age-related neurological diseases. In this review, we summarized the role of oxidative stress in age-related NDs, focusing on the current knowledge of the antioxidant compounds present in edible mushrooms, and highlighting their potential to preserve healthy aging by counteracting age-associated NDs.

Anti-Aging and Neuroprotective Properties of Grifola frondosa and Hericium erinaceus Extracts

Nutrition has relevant consequences for human health and increasing pieces of evidence indicate that medicinal mushrooms have several beneficial effects. One of the main issues in Western countries is represented by the challenges of aging and age-related diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders. Among these, Parkinson’s disease (PD) affects 10 million people worldwide and is associated with α-synuclein misfolding, also found in other pathologies collectively called synucleinopathies. Here, we show that aqueous extracts of two edible mushrooms, Grifola frondosa and Hericium erinaceus, represent a valuable source of β-glucans and exert anti-aging effects in yeast. Their beneficial effects are mediated through the inhibition of the Ras/PKA pathway, with increased expression of heat shock proteins, along with a consistent increase of both mean and maximal lifespans. These fungal extracts also reduce the toxicity of α-synuclein heterologously expressed in yeast cells, resulting in reduced ROS levels, lower α-synuclein membrane localization, and protein aggregation. The neuroprotective activity of G. frondosa extract was also confirmed in a PD model of Drosophila melanogaster. Taken together, our data suggest the use of G. frondosa and H. erinaceus as functional food to prevent aging and age-related disorders, further supporting the neuro-healthy properties of these medicinal mushroom extracts.

Update on new trend and progress of the mechanism of polysaccharides in the intervention of Alzheimer's disease, based on the new understanding of relevant theories: A review

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disease with insidious onset and progressive progression, is the main type of dementia. Currently, there is no specific cure for the disease. At the same time, a series of drug developments based on the classic theory, the Aβ cascade hypothesis, have not completed phase III clinical trials, challenging the hypothesis. Polysaccharides obtained from natural products can be used in the treatment of AD, which has attracted academic attention due to its advantages of multi-target, multi-channel, no or modest side effects. The TCM syndrome type of AD is mainly "qi and blood deficiency, kidney essence deficiency", and the medicine is mainly used to replenish qi and blood, kidney and bone marrow. Thus, there has been extensive and in-depth research on polysaccharides obtained from tonic Chinese herbal medicine in China. Based on this background, this paper evaluated the effects and mechanisms of natural polysaccharides on AD by combing and screening English and related literature in recent 5 years and summarized the extraction process and structure-activity relationship of polysaccharides.

A Mixture of Ginkgo biloba L. Leaf and Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers. Fruit Extract Attenuates Scopolamine-Induced Memory Impairments in Mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by loss of memory and cognitive impairment via dysfunction of the cholinergic nervous system. In cholinergic dysfunction, it is well known that impaired cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling are major pathological markers and are some of the strategies for the development of AD therapy. Therefore, this study is aimed at evaluating whether a mixture comprising Ginkgo biloba L. leaf (GL) and Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers. (HE) fruit extract (GH mixture) alleviated cognitive impairment induced in a scopolamine-induced model. It was discovered that GH reduced neuronal apoptosis and promoted neuronal survival by activating BDNF signaling in an in vitro assay. In addition, the GH (p.o. 240 mg/kg) oral administration group significantly restored the cognitive deficits of the scopolamine-induced mouse group (i.p. 1.2 mg/kg) in the behavior tests such as Y-maze and novel object recognition task (NORT) tests. This mixture also considerably enhanced cholinergic system function in the mouse brain. Furthermore, GH markedly upregulated the expressed levels of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), CREB, and BDNF protein levels. These results demonstrated that GH strongly exerted a neuroprotective effect on the scopolamine-induced mouse model, suggesting that an optimized mixture of GL and HE could be used as a good material for developing functional foods to aid in the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases, including AD.

Antioxidant Activity of Mushroom Extracts/Polysaccharides-Their Antiviral Properties and Plausible AntiCOVID-19 Properties

Mushrooms have been long accomplished for their medicinal properties and bioactivity. The ancients benefitted from it, even before they knew that there was more to mushrooms than just the culinary aspect. This review addresses the benefits of mushrooms and specifically dwells on the positive attributes of mushroom polysaccharides. Compared to mushroom research, mushroom polysaccharide-based reports were observed to be significantly less frequent. This review highlights the antioxidant properties and mechanisms as well as consolidates the various antioxidant applications of mushroom polysaccharides. The biological activities of mushroom polysaccharides are also briefly discussed. The antiviral properties of mushrooms and their polysaccharides have been reviewed and presented. The lacunae in implementation of the antiviral benefits into antiCOVID-19 pursuits has been highlighted. The need for expansion and extrapolation of the knowns of mushrooms to extend into the unknown is emphasized.

A novel polysaccharide from Hericium erinaceus: Preparation, structural characteristics, thermal stabilities, and antioxidant activities in vitro

A novel polysaccharide fraction (HEP) from Hericium erinaceus was successively isolated and purified in the present study. We researched its structure and thermal stabilities, and further studied its antioxidant activities in vitro. The results showed that HEP was an acid heteropolysaccharide, with an average molecular weight of approximately 19.7 kDa by high-performance gel permeation chromatography. Ion chromatography indicated that HEP was mainly composed of fucose:galactose:glucose:mannose:gluconic acid (Fuc:Gal:Glu:Man:GlcA) in a molar ratio of 1:2.87:0.09:0.12:0.01. Additionally, Fourier-transformed infrared and NMR spectroscopy further demonstrated that HEP was a pyranose containing α-configuration, mainly consisting of α-1-4-Fuc and α-1-6-Gal as the main chain, with →3,6)-α-D-Man-(1→and→1,6)-Glc was branched, with α-D-GlcpA-(1 as T-terminal. The specific rotation of HEP was +55°; by the differential scanning calorimetry and the thermal stability measurement of thermogravimetric analysis for HEP showed that the pyrolysis process of HEP was mainly divided into two processes, and its melting point was 75.93℃. In vitro anti-oxidation experiments showed that HEP had a certain ability to scavenge DPPH, hydroxyl, superoxide anion, and ABTS radicals. It was found that HEP had a strong ability to scavenge DPPH-free radicals, and the highest scavenging rate could reach 91.72% ± 0.17%, which was basically equivalent to the scavenging ability of Vitamin C (Vc). Therefore, it was revealed that HEP might be used as a natural antioxidant component. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: A novel polysaccharide (HEP) had a potent activity possibly due to its monosaccharide composition, sugar residues, and physicochemical properties. This research proved the potential of HEP in anti-oxidation and provided the possibility of developing new natural anti-oxidation products.

Protective Effect of Degraded Porphyra yezoensis Polysaccharides on the Oxidative Damage of Renal Epithelial Cells and on the Adhesion and Endocytosis of Nanocalcium Oxalate Crystals

The protective effects of Porphyra yezoensis polysaccharides (PYPs) with molecular weights of 576.2 (PYP1), 105.4 (PYP2), 22.47 (PYP3), and 3.89 kDa (PYP4) on the oxidative damage of human kidney proximal tubular epithelial (HK-2) cells and the differences in adherence and endocytosis of HK-2 cells to calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals before and after protection were investigated. Results showed that PYPs can effectively reduce the oxidative damage of oxalic acid to HK-2 cells. Under the preprotection of PYPs, cell viability increased, cell morphology improved, reactive oxygen species levels decreased, mitochondrial membrane potential increased, S phase cell arrest was inhibited, the cell apoptosis rate decreased, phosphatidylserine exposure reduced, the number of crystals adhered to the cell surface reduced, but the ability of cells to endocytose crystals enhanced. The lower the molecular weight, the better the protective effect of PYP. The results in this article indicated that PYPs can reduce the risk of kidney stone formation by protecting renal epithelial cells from oxidative damage and reducing calcium oxalate crystal adhesion, and PYP4 with the lowest molecular weight may be a potential drug for preventing kidney stone formation.

Characterization of lactic acid bacteria derived exopolysaccharides for use as a defined neuroprotective agent against amyloid beta1-42-induced apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disease characterized by cerebral neuronal degeneration and loss in a progressive manner. Amyloid beta (Aβ) in the brain is toxic to neurons, being a main risk factor for initiation and continuation of cognitive deterioration in AD. Neurotoxicity of Aβ origin is also linked to oxidative stress characterized by excessive lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, changes in antioxidant systems, and cerebral DNA damage in AD. Furthermore, Aβ can induce oxidative neuronal cell death by a mitochondrial dysfunction. Cellular injury caused by oxidative stress can be possibly prevented by boosting or promoting bodily oxidative defense system by supplying antioxidants in diet or as medications. However, most synthetic antioxidants are found to have cytotoxicity, which prevents their safe use, and limits their administration. For this reason, more attention has been paid to the natural non-toxic antioxidants. One of the most promising groups of non-toxic antioxidative compounds is thought to be polysaccharides. This study investigated the characterization and protective action exerted by exopolysaccharides (EPSs) originated from Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus B3 and Lactobacillus plantarum GD2 to protect from apoptotic activity exerted by Aβ1-42 among SH-SY5Y cells. We characterized EPSs by elemental analysis, FTIR, AFM, SEM, and XRD. The antioxidant effects of EPSs were determined by the DPPH free radical scavenging activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, metal ion chelating activity, lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity, and superoxide anion scavenging activity method. The protective effects of EPSs were determined by flow cytometry and RT-PCR. Mannose ratio, molecular weight, functional groups, surface morphology, and amorphous character structure of EPSs are thought to play a role in the protective effect of EPSs. EPSs reduced apoptotic activity of Aβ1-42 in addition to their depolarizing effect on mitochondrial membrane potential in concentration-dependent manner. These observations contribute the inclusion of EPSs among the therapeutic options used to manage various neurological disorders in the traditional medicine in a scientific manner, indicating that EPSs may be promising natural chemical constituents that need advanced research and development for pharmacological therapy of AD.

Potential Antidepressant Effects of Scutellaria baicalensis, Hericium erinaceus and Rhodiola rosea

Recent studies focused on the pharmacology and feasibility of herbal compounds as a potential strategy to target a variety of human diseases ranging from metabolic to brain disorders. Accordingly, bioactive ingredients which are found within a variety of herbal compounds are reported to produce both neuroprotective and psychotropic activities which may help to combat mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances and cognitive alterations. In the present manuscript, we focus on three herbs which appear effective in mitigating anxiety or depression with favourable risk-benefit profiles, namely Scutellaria baicalensis (S. baicalensis), Hericium erinaceus (H. erinaceus) and Rhodiola rosea (R. rosea). These three traditional folk medicinal herbs target the main biochemical events that are implicated in mental disorders, mimicking, to some extent, the mechanisms of action of conventional antidepressants and mood stabilizers with a wide margin of tolerability. In detail, they rescue alterations in neurotransmitter and neuro-endocrine systems, stimulate neurogenesis and the synthesis of neurotrophic factors, and they counteract oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation. Albeit the encouraging results that emerge from both experimental and clinical evidence, further studies are needed to confirm and better understand the mental-health promoting, and specifically, the antidepressant effects of these herbs.

Comparison of the adhesion and endocytosis of calcium oxalate dihydrate to HK-2 cells before and after repair by Astragalus polysaccharide

This work investigated the effects of repairing injured renal proximal tubular epithelial (HK-2) cells by using three Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) with different molecular weights and the adhesion and endocytosis of HK-2 cells to the calcium oxalate dihydrate (COD) nanocrystals before and after repair to develop new products that can protect against kidney stones. HK-2 cells cultured in vitro were injured with 2.6 mmol/L oxalic acid to establish a damaged cell model. Three kinds of APS (APS0, APS1, and APS2 with molecular weights of 11.03, 4.72, and 2.60 kDa, respectively) were used to repair the damaged cells. The changes in the adhesion and endocytosis of 100 nm COD crystals to cells before and after the repair were detected. After the repair of HK-2 cells by the APS, the speed of wound healing of the damaged HK-2 cells increased, and the amount of phosphatidylserine (PS) ectropion decreased. In addition, the proportion of cells with adhered COD crystals decreased, whereas the proportion of cells with internalized crystals increased. As a result of the repair activity, APS can inhibit the adhesion and promote the endocytosis of COD nanocrystals to damaged cells. APS1, which had a moderate molecular weight, displayed the strongest abilities to repair the cells, inhibit adhesion, and promote endocytosis. Thus, APS, particularly APS1, may serve as potential green drugs for preventing kidney stones.

Human Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Neural Lineages as In Vitro Models for Screening the Neuroprotective Properties of Lignosus rhinocerus (Cooke) Ryvarden

In the biomedical field, there is growing interest in using human stem cell-derived neurons as in vitro models for pharmacological and toxicological screening of bioactive compounds extracted from natural products. Lignosus rhinocerus (Tiger Milk Mushroom) is used by indigenous communities in Malaysia as a traditional medicine to treat various diseases. The sclerotium of L. rhinocerus has been reported to have medicinal properties, including various bioactivities such as neuritogenic, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. This study aims to investigate the neuroprotective activities of L. rhinocerus sclerotial extracts. Human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived neural lineages exposed to the synthetic glucocorticoid, dexamethasone (DEX), were used as the in vitro models. Excess glucocorticoids have been shown to adversely affect fetal brain development and impair differentiation of neural progenitor cells. Screening of different L. rhinocerus sclerotial extracts and DEX on the hESC-derived neural lineages was conducted using cell viability and neurite outgrowth assays. The neuroprotective effects of L. rhinocerus sclerotial extracts against DEX were further evaluated using apoptosis assays and Western blot analysis. Hot aqueous and methanol extracts of L. rhinocerus sclerotium promoted neurite outgrowth of hESC-derived neural stem cells (NSCs) with negligible cytotoxicity. Treatment with DEX decreased viability of NSCs by inducing apoptosis. Coincubation of L. rhinocerus methanol extract with DEX attenuated the DEX-induced apoptosis and reduction in phospho-Akt (pAkt) level in NSCs. These results suggest the involvement of Akt signaling in the neuroprotection of L. rhinocerus methanol extract against DEX-induced apoptosis in NSCs. Methanol extract of L. rhinocerus sclerotium exhibited potential neuroprotective activities against DEX-induced toxicity in hESC-derived NSCs. This study thus validates the use of human stem cell-derived neural lineages as potential in vitro models for screening of natural products with neuroprotective properties.

Lion's Mane Mushroom, Hericium erinaceus (Bull.: Fr.) Pers. Suppresses H2O2-Induced Oxidative Damage and LPS-Induced Inflammation in HT22 Hippocampal Neurons and BV2 Microglia

Oxidative stress and inflammation in neuron-glia system are key factors in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. As synthetic drugs may cause side effects, natural products have gained recognition for the prevention or management of diseases. In this study, hot water (HE-HWA) and ethanolic (HE-ETH) extracts of the basidiocarps of Hericium erinaceus mushroom were investigated for their neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory activities against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced neurotoxicity in HT22 mouse hippocampal neurons and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV2 microglial activation respectively. HE-ETH showed potent neuroprotective activity by significantly (p < 0.0001) increasing the viability of H₂O₂-treated neurons. This was accompanied by significant reduction in reactive oxygen species (ROS) (p < 0.05) and improvement of the antioxidant enzyme catalase (CAT) (p < 0.05) and glutathione (GSH) content (p < 0.01). Besides, HE-ETH significantly improved mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) (p < 0.05) and ATP production (p < 0.0001) while reducing mitochondrial toxicity (p < 0.001), Bcl-2-associated X (Bax) gene expression (p < 0.05) and nuclear apoptosis (p < 0.0001). However, gene expression of Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1) were unaffected (p > 0.05). HE-ETH also significantly (p < 0.0001) reduced nitric oxide (NO) level in LPS-treated BV2 indicating an anti-inflammatory activity in the microglia. These findings demonstrated HE-ETH maybe a potential neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory agent in neuron-glia environment.

Assessment of In Vitro Bioactivities of Polysaccharides Isolated from Hericium Novae-Zealandiae

The objective of this study was to investigate the potential effect of the polysaccharides isolated from Hericium novae-zealandiae, a native New Zealand fungus, on the in vitro proliferation of prostate cancer cell lines, gene expression, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and oxidation. One water-soluble and two alkali-soluble polysaccharide fractions were isolated from H. novae-zealandiae. The proliferation of the prostate cancer cell lines DU145, LNCaP, and PC3 was evaluated following treatment with these polysaccharide fractions. It was found that the polysaccharides possess anti-proliferative activity on LNCaP and PC3 cells, with a 50% growth inhibition (IC₅₀) value as low as 0.61 mg/mL in LNCaP. Subsequently, it was determined through via RT-qPCR assay that apoptosis was one of the possible mechanisms responsible for the anti-proliferative activity in LNCaP. This was supported by the up-regulation of CASP3, CASP8, and CASP9. An alternative, discovered in PC3, was revealed to be anti-inflammation, which was hinted at by the down-regulation of IL6 and up-regulation of IL24. The polysaccharides also exhibited antioxidant and weak AChE inhibitory activities. This is the first report on the potential health benefits of polysaccharides prepared from the New Zealand fungus, H. novae-zealandiae.

Development and validation of an HPLC-DAD-MS method for determination of four nucleoside compounds in the New Zealand native mushroom Hericium sp

To identify and quantify the content of nucleoside compounds in the New Zealand native edible mushroom Hericium sp., a high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a triple quadrupole detector mass method was developed and validated. Four nucleoside substitutes, namely cytidine, uridine, adenosine, and guanosine, were identified. Optimization was conducted to study the effect of extraction method type, solvent pH, and extraction time. The optimal conditions were obtained using ultrasonic treatment in water at pH 3.8 for 30 min. For chromatographic separation, a C₁₈ column was applied using 0.1% formic acid (pH 3.4) as the mobile phase with detection at 260 nm. The total concentration of the four nucleoside compounds was high, at 10.7 mg/g dry weight, indicating a potential benefit for human health. The excellent validation results based on selectivity, linearity, precision, accuracy and robustness revealed the reliability of the newly developed analytical method, which could be applied routinely in research laboratories.

Antioxidant Activities and Repair Effects on Oxidatively Damaged HK-2 Cells of Tea Polysaccharides with Different Molecular Weights

This study aims at investigating the antioxidant activity and repair effect of green tea polysaccharide (TPS) with different molecular weights (Mw) on damaged human kidney proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2). Scavenging activities on hydroxyl radical (·OH) and ABTS radical and reducing power of four kinds of TPS with Mw of 10.88 (TPS0), 8.16 (TPS1), 4.82 (TPS2), and 2.31 kDa (TPS3) were detected. A damaged cell model was established using 2.6 mmol/L oxalate to injure HK-2 cells. Then, different concentrations of TPSs were used to repair the damaged cells. Index changes of subcellular organelles of HK-2 cells were detected before and after repair. The four kinds of TPSs possessed radical scavenging activity and reducing power, wherein TPS2 with moderate Mw presented the strongest antioxidant activity. After repair by TPSs, cell morphology of damaged HK-2 cells was gradually restored to normal conditions. Reactive oxygen species production decreased, and mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) of repaired cells increased. Cells of G1 phase arrest were inhibited, and cell proportion in the S phase increased. Lysosome integrity improved, and cell apoptotic rates significantly reduced in the repaired group. The four kinds of TPSs with varying Mw displayed antioxidant activity and repair effect on the mitochondria, lysosomes, and intracellular DNA. TPS2, with moderate Mw, showed the strongest antioxidant activity and repair effect; it may become a potential drug for prevention and treatment of kidney stones.

Neuroprotective properties of Cantharellus cibarius polysaccharide fractions in different in vitro models of neurodegeneration

The percentage of people suffering from neurodegenerative diseases is constantly increasing, because of that searching for substances able to prevent or inhibit neuronal death sseems to be reasonable. Because of the high popularity the search of new neuroprotective agents we started from Cantharellus cibarius. Neuroprotective properties of C. cibarius polysaccharides fractions was investigated in different models of neurodegeneration including trophic stress, excitotoxicity and andoxidative stress. Fractions influence on neurons viability was examined using Neurite Outgrowth Staining, MTT and LDH tests, while antioxidant capacity was determined by commercial antioxidant assays. Performed studies revealed beneficial effect of C. cibarius fractions (CC2a, CC3) on neurons viability and neurite outgrowth in normal and different stress conditions. Both tested fractions have shown antioxidant capacity and effectively neutralize the negative changes induced by glutamatergic system activators. Discovered neuroprotective properties of investigated compounds suggested the their use for developing effective and safety therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases.

Docking Studies and Biological Evaluation of a Potential β-Secretase Inhibitor of 3-Hydroxyhericenone F from Hericium erinaceus

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder, affecting approximately more than 5% of the population worldwide over the age 65, annually. The incidence of AD is expected to be higher in the next 10 years. AD patients experience poor prognosis and as a consequence new drugs and therapeutic strategies are required in order to improve the clinical responses and outcomes of AD. The purpose of the present study was to screen a certain number of potential compounds from herbal sources and investigate their corresponding mode of action. In the present study, the learning and memory effects of ethanol:water (8:2) extracts from Hericium erinaceus were evaluated on a dementia rat model. The model was established by intraperitoneal injection of 100 mg/kg/d D-galactose in rats. The results indicated that the extracts can significantly ameliorate the learning and memory abilities. Specific active ingredients were screened in vivo assays and the results were combined with molecular docking studies. Potential receptor–ligand interactions on the BACE1-inhibitor namely, 3-Hydroxyhericenone F (3HF) were investigated. The isolation of a limited amount of 3HF from the fruit body of H. erinaceus by chemical separation was conducted, and the mode of action of this compound was verified in NaN₃-induced PC12 cells. The cell-based assays demonstrated that 3HF can significantly down-regulate the expression of BACE1 (p < 0.01), while additional AD intracellular markers namely, p-Tau and Aβ_1-42 were further down-regulated (p < 0.05). The data further indicate that 3HF can ameliorate certain mitochondrial dysfunction conditions by the reversal of the decreasing level of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes, the calcium ion levels ([Ca²⁺]), the inhibiton in the production of ROS, the increase in the mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP levels, and the regulation of the expression levels of the genes encoding for the p21, COX I, COX II, PARP1, and NF-κB proteins. The observations suggest the use of H. erinaceus in traditional medicine for the treatment of various neurological diseases and render 3HF as a promising naturally occurring chemical constituent for the treatment of AD via the inhibition of the β-secretase enzyme.

Mushroom Polysaccharides: Chemistry and Antiobesity, Antidiabetes, Anticancer, and Antibiotic Properties in Cells, Rodents, and Humans

More than 2000 species of edible and/or medicinal mushrooms have been identified to date, many of which are widely consumed, stimulating much research on their health-promoting properties. These properties are associated with bioactive compounds produced by the mushrooms, including polysaccharides. Although β-glucans (homopolysaccharides) are believed to be the major bioactive polysaccharides of mushrooms, other types of mushroom polysaccharides (heteropolysaccharides) also possess biological properties. Here we survey the chemistry of such health-promoting polysaccharides and their reported antiobesity and antidiabetic properties as well as selected anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, and antiviral effects that demonstrate their multiple health-promoting potential. The associated antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulating activities in fat cells, rodents, and humans are also discussed. The mechanisms of action involve the gut microbiota, meaning the polysaccharides act as prebiotics in the digestive system. Also covered here are the nutritional, functional food, clinical, and epidemiological studies designed to assess the health-promoting properties of polysaccharides, individually and as blended mixtures, against obesity, diabetes, cancer, and infectious diseases, and suggestions for further research. The collated information and suggested research needs might guide further studies needed for a better understanding of the health-promoting properties of mushroom polysaccharides and enhance their use to help prevent and treat human chronic diseases.

The Neuroprotective Properties of Hericium erinaceus in Glutamate-Damaged Differentiated PC12 Cells and an Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model

Hericium erinaceus, an edible and medicinal mushroom, displays various pharmacological activities in the prevention of dementia in conditions such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. The present study explored the neuroprotective effects of H. erinaceus mycelium polysaccharide-enriched aqueous extract (HE) on an l-glutamic acid (l-Glu)-induced differentiated PC12 (DPC12) cellular apoptosis model and an AlCl₃ combined with d-galactose-induced Alzheimer's disease mouse model. The data revealed that HE successfully induced PC12 cell differentiation. A 3 h HE incubation at doses of 50 and 100 µg/mL before 25 mM of l-Glu effectively reversed the reduction of cell viability and the enhancement of the nuclear apoptosis rate in DPC12 cells. Compared with l-Glu-damaged cells, in PC12 cells, HE suppressed intracellular reactive oxygen species accumulation, blocked Ca2+ overload and prevented mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) depolarization. In the Alzheimer's disease mouse model, HE administration enhanced the horizontal and vertical movements in the autonomic activity test, improved the endurance time in the rotarod test, and decreased the escape latency time in the water maze test. It also improved the central cholinergic system function in the Alzheimer's mice, demonstrated by the fact that it dose-dependently enhanced the acetylcholine (Ach) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) concentrations in both the serum and the hypothalamus. Our findings provide experimental evidence that HE may provide neuroprotective candidates for treating or preventing neurodegenerative diseases.