Anti-trichomonad activities of different compounds from foods, marine products, and medicinal plants: a review

Review on toxicology and activity of tomato glycoalkaloids in immature tomatoes

Owing to the lack of selection and limited intelligence in mechanical picking, some immature tomatoes that contain alkaloids are thrown away. Tomatine alkaloids are steroidal alkaloids naturally present in Solanaceae plants, which are distributed in small amounts in immature tomato fruits and decrease as the fruits ripen. Tomato glycoalkaloids are harmful to human health. However, in small quantities, there is some evidence that these compounds might be beneficial, as other non-antioxidant bioactivities. This article considers recent research on the biological effects of tomato glycoalkaloids in immature tomatoes, providing reference value for the potential development of these compounds.

Quercetin as a Promising Antiprotozoan Phytochemical: Current Knowledge and Future Research Avenues

Despite tremendous advances in the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases, only few antiparasitic drugs have been developed to date. Protozoan infections such as malaria, leishmaniasis, and trypanosomiasis continue to exact an enormous toll on public health worldwide, underscoring the need to discover novel antiprotozoan drugs. Recently, there has been an explosion of research into the antiprotozoan properties of quercetin, one of the most abundant flavonoids in the human diet. In this review, we tried to consolidate the current knowledge on the antiprotozoal effects of quercetin and to provide the most fruitful avenues for future research. Quercetin exerts potent antiprotozoan activity against a broad spectrum of pathogens such as Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma spp., Plasmodium spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Trichomonas spp., and Toxoplasma gondii. In addition to its immunomodulatory roles, quercetin disrupts mitochondrial function, induces apoptotic/necrotic cell death, impairs iron uptake, inhibits multiple enzymes involved in fatty acid synthesis and the glycolytic pathways, suppresses the activity of DNA topoisomerases, and downregulates the expression of various heat shock proteins in these pathogens. In vivo studies also show that quercetin is effective in reducing parasitic loads, histopathological damage, and mortality in animals. Future research should focus on designing effective drug delivery systems to increase the oral bioavailability of quercetin. Incorporating quercetin into various nanocarrier systems would be a promising approach to manage localized cutaneous infections. Nevertheless, clinical trials are needed to validate the efficacy of quercetin in treating various protozoan infections.

Isomers of the Tomato Glycoalkaloids α-Tomatine and Dehydrotomatine: Relationship to Health Benefits

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of three commercial tomatine samples and another isolated from green tomatoes revealed the presence of two small peaks in addition to those associated with the glycoalkaloids dehydrotomatine and α-tomatine. The present study investigated the possible structures of the compounds associated with the two small peaks using HPLC-mass spectrophotometric (MS) methods. Although the two peaks elute much earlier on chromatographic columns than the elution times of the known tomato glycoalkaloids dehydrotomatine and α-tomatine, isolation of the two compounds by preparative chromatography and subsequent analysis by MS shows the two compounds have identical molecular weights, tetrasaccharide side chains, and MS and MS/MS fragmentation patterns to dehydrotomatine and α-tomatine. We suggest the two isolated compounds are isomeric forms of dehydrotomatine and α-tomatine. The analytical data indicate that widely used commercial tomatine preparations and those extracted from green tomatoes and tomato leaves consist of a mixture of α-tomatine, dehydrotomatine, an α-tomatine isomer, and a dehydrotomatine isomer in an approximate ratio of 81:15:4:1, respectively. The significance of the reported health benefits of tomatine and tomatidine is mentioned.

Bioprospection of the trichomonacidal activity of lipid extracts derived from marine macroalgae Gigartina skottsbergii

Algal extracts are sources of bioactive substances with applications in the development of novel alternative drugs against several diseases, including trichomoniasis sexually transmitted infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis. Factors such as clinical failures and resistant strains limit the success of the existing drugs available for treating this disease. Therefore, searching for viable alternatives to these drugs is essential for the treatment of this disease. The present study was conducted for, in vitro and in silico characterization of extracts obtained from marine macroalgae Gigartina skottsbergii at stages gametophidic, cystocarpic, and tetrasporophidic. In addition, antiparasitic activity of these extracts against the ATCC 30236 isolate of T. vaginalis, their cytotoxicity, and gene expression of trophozoites after treatment were evaluated. The minimum inhibitory concentration and 50% inhibition concentration were determined for each extract. Results: In vitro analysis of the extracts' anti-T. vaginalis activity revealed an inhibitory effect of 100%, 89.61%, and 86.95% for Gigartina skottsbergii at stages gametophidic, cystocarpic, and tetrasporophidic, respectively, at 100 μg/mL. In silico analysis revealed the interactions between constituents of the extracts and enzymes from T. vaginalis, with significant free energy values obtained for the binding. None of the extract concentrations exhibited cytotoxic effects on VERO cell line compared to control, while cytotoxicity on HMVII vaginal epithelial cells line was observed at 100 μg/mL (30% inhibition). Gene expression analysis revealed differences in the expression profile of T. vaginalis enzymes between the extract-treated and control groups. According to these results, Gigartina skottsbergii extracts exhibited satisfactory antiparasitic activity.

Anti-Trichomonas gallinae activity of essential oils and main compounds from Lamiaceae and Asteraceae plants

Trichomonas gallinae is a flagellated protozoan that parasitizes the upper digestive tract of various bird species and causes avian trichomonosis. The emergence of resistant strains to the standard treatment, based on nitroimidazoles, increases the need to find alternative therapies. In this study, 36 essential oils (EOs) from Lamiaceae and Asteraceae plant families were tested against T. gallinae trophozoites using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl-)-2,5-dipheniltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction assay. Among them, EOs from distinct species of Lamiaceae, including the genera Lavandula, Salvia, Thymus, Origanum, and Satureja were the ones reporting better anti-trichomonal activity, and were selected for further analysis, including chemical composition and in vitro assays. The chemical composition of the selected EOs was determined by gas chromatography followed by mass spectrometry and 19 pure compounds were tested against the protozoa, according to their higher abundance in the active EOs. Pure compounds which displayed the highest activity against T. gallinae trophozoites, ordered by highest to lowest activity, were α and β-thujones, camphene, β-pinene, linalyl acetate, thymol, 4-terpineol, γ-terpinene, α-pinene, p-cymene, D-fenchone and β-caryophyllene. A dose dependent effect was observed in most of the EOs and pure compounds tested. The toxicity test conducted in eukaryotic cell cultures with the anti-trichomonal active pure compounds showed that β-caryophyllene, camphene, α-pinene, and β-pinene were slightly toxic for Vero cells, and the selectivity index was calculated. Based on the anti-trichomonal activity and the absence of cytotoxicity results, natural products from Lamiaceae plants could be useful as alternative therapy against avian trichomonosis, mainly those containing linalyl acetate, thymol, 4-terpinenol, γ-terpinene, p-cymene and D-fenchone.

Induction of apoptosis by hydroalcoholic and methanolic extract of Deracocephalum kotschyi on Trichomonas vaginalis

Trichomonas vaginalis (T.vaginalis) causes trichomoniasis, a sexually transmitted infection. Dracocephalum kotschyi (D. kotschyi) belongs to the family of Labiatae. Its antispasmodic and analgesic properties are well known in Iran. This work aimed to look into the antitrichomonal activity of D. kotschyi extracts against T. vaginalis in vitro. D. kotschyi was gathered in Isfahan Province, Iran, and extracts were prepared and isolated. Later, T. vaginalis trophozoites obtained from Iran, which are metronidazole-sensitive, were incubated with various doses of extracts. Cell viability was used to determine the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) and percentage of growth inhibition (GI%). Cytotoxicity of the extracts was determined by MTT assay on the J774.A1 cell line. The effect of extracts during the initial stage of apoptosis was assayed using the fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) Annexin V Apoptosis Detection Kit I (BD Pharmingen™). Compared to MTZ, extracts generated more efficient lysis on T. vaginalis trophozoites. Evaluation of the in vitro anti trichomonal properties of D. kotschyi essential extracts shows that it effectively induces apoptosis on T. vaginalis between 100 and 500 µg/ml after 48 h without toxicity on hematopoietic cells. According to this study, D. kotschyi extracts induce programmed death in T. vaginalis. The extracts of D. kotschyi can be used to develop antitrichomonal drugs.

The steroidal alkaloids α-tomatine and tomatidine: Panorama of their mode of action and pharmacological properties

The steroidal glycoalkaloid α-tomatine (αTM) and its aglycone tomatidine (TD) are abundant in the skin of unripe green tomato and present in tomato leaves and flowers. They mainly serve as defensive agents to protect the plant against infections by insects, bacteria, parasites, viruses, and fungi. In addition, the two products display a range of pharmacological properties potentially useful to treat various human diseases. We have analyzed all known pharmacological activities of αTM and TD, and the corresponding molecular targets and pathways impacted by these two steroidal alkaloids. In experimental models, αTM displays anticancer effects, particularly strong against androgen-independent prostate cancer, as well as robust antifungal effects. αTM is a potent cholesterol binder, useful as a vaccine adjuvant to improve delivery of protein antigens or therapeutic oligonucleotides. TD is a much less cytotoxic compound, able to restrict the spread of certain viruses (such as dengue, chikungunya and porcine epidemic diarrhea viruses) and to provide cardio and neuro-protective effects toward human cells. Both αTM and TD exhibit marked anti-inflammatory activities. They proceed through multiple signaling pathways and protein targets, including the sterol C24 methyltransferase Erg6 and vitamin D receptor, both directly targeted by TD. αTM is a powerful regulator of the NFkB/ERK signaling pathway implicated in various diseases. Collectively, the analysis shed light on the multitargeted action of αTM/TD and their usefulness as chemo-preventive or chemotherapeutic agents. A novel medicinal application for αTM is proposed.

Antimicrobial properties of tomato leaves, stems, and fruit and their relationship to chemical composition

BACKGROUND

We previously reported that the tomato glycoalkaloid tomatine inhibited the growth of Trichomonas vaginalis strain G3, Tritrichomonas foetus strain D1, and Tritrichomonas foetus-like strain C1 that cause disease in humans and farm and domesticated animals. The increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance requires development of new tools to enhance or replace medicinal antibiotics.

METHODS

Wild tomato plants were harvested and divided into leaves, stems, and fruit of different colors: green, yellow, and red. Samples were freeze dried and ground with a handheld mill. The resulting powders were evaluated for their potential anti-microbial effects on protozoan parasites, bacteria, and fungi. A concentration of 0.02% (w/v) was used for the inhibition of protozoan parasites. A high concentration of 10% (w/v) solution was tested for bacteria and fungi as an initial screen to evaluate potential anti-microbial activity and results using this high concentration limits its clinical relevance.

RESULTS

Natural powders derived from various parts of tomato plants were all effective in inhibiting the growth of the three trichomonads to varying degrees. Test samples from leaves, stems, and immature 'green' tomato peels and fruit, all containing tomatine, were more effective as an inhibitor of the D1 strain than those prepared from yellow and red tomato peels which lack tomatine. Chlorogenic acid and quercetin glycosides were present in all parts of the plant and fruit, while caffeic acid was only found in the fruit peels. Any correlation between plant components and inhibition of the G3 and C1 strains was not apparent, although all the powders were variably effective. Tomato leaf was the most effective powder in all strains, and was also the highest in tomatine. S. enterica showed a minor susceptibility while B. cereus and C. albicans fungi both showed a significant growth inhibition with some of the test powders. The powders inhibited growth of the pathogens without affecting beneficial lactobacilli found in the normal flora of the vagina.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that powders prepared from tomato leaves, stems, and green tomato peels and to a lesser extent from peels from yellow and red tomatoes offer potential multiple health benefits against infections caused by pathogenic protozoa, bacteria, and fungi, without affecting beneficial lactobacilli that also reside in the normal flora of the vagina.

Bioactive Compounds as Potential Agents for Sexually Transmitted Diseases Management: A Review to Explore Molecular Mechanisms of Action

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are produced by pathogens like bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses, and may generate severe health problems such as cancer, ulcers, and even problems in the newborn. This narrative review aims to present updated information about the use of natural bioactive compounds for the prevention and treatment of sexually transmitted infections. A search of the literature was performed using databases and search engines such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Science Direct. From the pharmacotherapeutic management point of view, any strategies for prevention should contain medical approaches. The bioactive compounds obtained from natural products have shown biological effects against different microorganisms for the treatment of these diseases. The main results showed antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, antifungal and antiviral effects such as HIV. Also, the molecular mechanisms, signalling pathways and action targets of natural compounds were highlighted, thus justifying bacterial and antifungal inhibition, apoptosis or reduction of viral replication. From the data of our study, we can conclude that natural compounds may be a significant source for adjuvant drugs / complementary therapies in the treatment of STDs. With all these benefits, the future must conduct extensive clinical trials and the development of pharmaceutical nanotechnologies for a greater therapeutic effect.

Nanoparticles as antimicrobial and antiviral agents: A literature-based perspective study

The scientific explorations of nanoparticles for their inherent therapeutic potencies as antimicrobial and antiviral agents due to increasing incidences of antibiotic resistance have gained more attention in recent time. This factor amongst others necessitates the search for newer and more effective antimicrobial agents. Several investigations have demonstrated the prospects of nanoparticles in the treatment of various microbial infections. The therapeutic applications of nanoparticles as either delivery agent or broad spectrum inhibition agents in viral and microbial investigations can no longer be overlooked. Their large surface area to volume ratio made them an indispensable substance as delivery agents in many respect. Various materials have been used for the synthesis of nanoparticles with unique properties channelised to meet specific therapeutic requirement. This review focuses on the antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral potential of nanoparticles with their probable mechanism of action.

Anti-Parasitic Activity of Cherry Tomato Peel Powders

Trichomoniasis in humans, caused by the protozoal parasite Trichomonas vaginalis, is the most common non-viral sexually transmitted disease, while Tritrichomonas foetus causes trichomonosis, an infection of the gastrointestinal tract and diarrhea in farm animals and domesticated cats. As part of an effort to determine the inhibitory effects of plant-based extracts and pure compounds, seven commercially available cherry tomato varieties were hand-peeled, freeze-dried, and pounded into powders. The anti-trichomonad inhibitory activities of these peel powders at 0.02% concentration determined using an in vitro cell assay varied widely from 0.0% to 66.7% against T. vaginalis G3 (human); from 0.9% to 66.8% for T. foetus C1 (feline); and from 0.0% to 81.3% for T. foetus D1 (bovine). The organic Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme (D) peels were the most active against all three trichomonads, inhibiting 52.2% (G3), 66.8% (C1), and 81.3% (D1). Additional assays showed that none of the powders inhibited the growth of foodborne pathogenic bacteria, pathogenic fungi, or non-pathogenic lactobacilli. Tomato peel and pomace powders with high content of described biologically active compounds could serve as functional food and feed additives that might help overcome adverse effects of wide-ranging diseases and complement the treatment of parasites with the anti-trichomonad drug metronidazole.