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Broger T, Koeppel L, Huerga H, Miller P, Gupta-Wright A, Blanc FX, Esmail A, Reeve BWP, Floridia M, Kerkhoff AD, Ciccacci F, Kasaro MP, Thit SS, Bastard M, Ferlazzo G, Yoon C, Van Hoving DJ, Sossen B, García JI, Cummings MJ, Wake RM, Hanson J, Cattamanchi A, Meintjes G, Maartens G, Wood R, Theron G, Dheda K, Olaru ID, Denkinger CM. Diagnostic yield of urine lipoarabinomannan and sputum tuberculosis tests in people living with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. Lancet Glob Health 2023; 11:e903-e916. [PMID: 37202025 DOI: 10.1016/s2214-109x(23)00135-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sputum is the most widely used sample to diagnose active tuberculosis, but many people living with HIV are unable to produce sputum. Urine, in contrast, is readily available. We hypothesised that sample availability influences the diagnostic yield of various tuberculosis tests. METHODS In this systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data, we compared the diagnostic yield of point-of-care urine-based lipoarabinomannan tests with that of sputum-based nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) and sputum smear microscopy (SSM). We used microbiologically confirmed tuberculosis based on positive culture or NAAT from any body site as the denominator and accounted for sample provision. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, African Journals Online, and clinicaltrials.gov from database inception to Feb 24, 2022 for randomised controlled trials, cross-sectional studies, and cohort studies that assessed urine lipoarabinomannan point-of-care tests and sputum NAATs for active tuberculosis detection in participants irrespective of tuberculosis symptoms, HIV status, CD4 cell count, or study setting. We excluded studies in which recruitment was not consecutive, systematic, or random; provision of sputum or urine was an inclusion criterion; less than 30 participants were diagnosed with tuberculosis; early research assays without clearly defined cutoffs were tested; and humans were not studied. We extracted study-level data, and authors of eligible studies were invited to contribute deidentified individual participant data. The main outcomes were the tuberculosis diagnostic yields of urine lipoarabinomannan tests, sputum NAATs, and SSM. Diagnostic yields were predicted using Bayesian random-effects and mixed-effects meta-analyses. This study is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42021230337. FINDINGS We identified 844 records, from which 20 datasets and 10 202 participants (4561 [45%] male participants and 5641 [55%] female participants) were included in the meta-analysis. All studies assessed sputum Xpert (MTB/RIF or Ultra, Cepheid, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) and urine Alere Determine TB LAM (AlereLAM, Abbott, Chicago, IL, USA) in people living with HIV aged 15 years or older. Nearly all (9957 [98%] of 10 202) participants provided urine, and 82% (8360 of 10 202) provided sputum within 2 days. In studies that enrolled unselected inpatients irrespective of tuberculosis symptoms, only 54% (1084 of 1993) of participants provided sputum, whereas 99% (1966 of 1993) provided urine. Diagnostic yield was 41% (95% credible interval [CrI] 15-66) for AlereLAM, 61% (95% Crl 25-88) for Xpert, and 32% (95% Crl 10-55) for SSM. Heterogeneity existed across studies in the diagnostic yield, influenced by CD4 cell count, tuberculosis symptoms, and clinical setting. In predefined subgroup analyses, all tests had higher yields in symptomatic participants, and AlereLAM yield was higher in those with low CD4 counts and inpatients. AlereLAM and Xpert yields were similar among inpatients in studies enrolling unselected participants who were not assessed for tuberculosis symptoms (51% vs 47%). AlereLAM and Xpert together had a yield of 71% in unselected inpatients, supporting the implementation of combined testing strategies. INTERPRETATION AlereLAM, with its rapid turnaround time and simplicity, should be prioritised to inform tuberculosis therapy among inpatients who are HIV-positive, regardless of symptoms or CD4 cell count. The yield of sputum-based tuberculosis tests is undermined by people living with HIV who cannot produce sputum, whereas nearly all participants are able to provide urine. The strengths of this meta-analysis are its large size, the carefully harmonised denominator, and the use of Bayesian random-effects and mixed-effects models to predict yields; however, data were geographically restricted, clinically diagnosed tuberculosis was not considered in the denominator, and little information exists on strategies for obtaining sputum samples. FUNDING FIND, the Global Alliance for Diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Broger
- Division of Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lisa Koeppel
- Division of Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Helena Huerga
- Field Epidemiology Department, Epicentre, Paris, France
| | - Poppy Miller
- New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ankur Gupta-Wright
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK; Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - François-Xavier Blanc
- Service de Pneumologie, l'institut du thorax, Nantes Université, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Aliasgar Esmail
- Centre for Lung Infection and Immunity, Division of Pulmonology, Department of Medicine and UCT Lung Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; South African MRC Centre for the Study of Antimicrobial Resistance, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Byron W P Reeve
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Marco Floridia
- National Center for Global Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrew D Kerkhoff
- Division of HIV, Infectious Diseases and Global Medicine, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, CA, USA; Trauma Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Center for Tuberculosis, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Fausto Ciccacci
- UniCamillus, International University of Health and Medical Science, Rome, Italy; Community of Sant'Egidio, DREAM programme, Rome, Italy
| | - Margaret P Kasaro
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia; UNC Global Projects, LLC Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Swe Swe Thit
- Department of Medicine, University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Myanmar
| | | | | | - Christina Yoon
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, CA, USA; Center for Tuberculosis, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Daniël J Van Hoving
- Division of Emergency Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Division of Emergency Medicine, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Bianca Sossen
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Juan Ignacio García
- Population Health Program, Tuberculosis Group, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Matthew J Cummings
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Center for Infection and Immunity, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Rachel M Wake
- Centre for Healthcare-Associated Infections, Antimicrobial Resistance and Mycoses, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa; Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Josh Hanson
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Adithya Cattamanchi
- Center for Tuberculosis, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Diseases and Critical Care Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Graeme Meintjes
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Gary Maartens
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Robin Wood
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Grant Theron
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Keertan Dheda
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK; Centre for Lung Infection and Immunity, Division of Pulmonology, Department of Medicine and UCT Lung Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; South African MRC Centre for the Study of Antimicrobial Resistance, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Ioana Diana Olaru
- Division of Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany; Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Claudia M Denkinger
- Division of Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, partner site, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.
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Mukherjee S, Perveen S, Negi A, Sharma R. Evolution of tuberculosis diagnostics: From molecular strategies to nanodiagnostics. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2023; 140:102340. [PMID: 37031646 PMCID: PMC10072981 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2023.102340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis has remained a global concern for public health affecting the lives of people for ages. Approximately 10 million people are affected by the disease and 1.5 million succumb to the disease worldwide annually. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the role of early diagnosis to win the battle against such infectious diseases. Thus, advancement in the diagnostic approaches to provide early detection forms the foundation to eradicate and manage contagious diseases like tuberculosis. The conventional diagnostic strategies include microscopic examination, chest X-ray and tuberculin skin test. The limitations associated with sensitivity and specificity of these tests demands for exploring new techniques like probe-based assays, CRISPR-Cas and microRNA detection. The aim of the current review is to envisage the correlation between both the conventional and the newer approaches to enhance the specificity and sensitivity. A significant emphasis has been placed upon nanodiagnostic approaches manipulating quantum dots, magnetic nanoparticles, and biosensors for accurate diagnosis of latent, active and drug-resistant TB. Additionally, we would like to ponder upon a reliable method that is cost-effective, reproducible, require minimal infrastructure and provide point-of-care to the patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Summaya Perveen
- Infectious Diseases Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, 180001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Anjali Negi
- Infectious Diseases Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, 180001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Rashmi Sharma
- Infectious Diseases Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, 180001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India.
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Landscape of TB Infection and Prevention among People Living with HIV. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11121552. [PMID: 36558886 PMCID: PMC9786705 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11121552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the leading causes of mortality in people living with HIV (PLHIV) and contributes to up to a third of deaths in this population. The World Health Organization guidelines aim to target early detection and treatment of TB among PLHIV, particularly in high-prevalence and low-resource settings. Prevention plays a key role in the fight against TB among PLHIV. This review explores TB screening tools available for PLHIV, including symptom-based screening, chest radiography, tuberculin skin tests, interferon gamma release assays, and serum biomarkers. We then review TB Preventive Treatment (TPT), shown to reduce the progression to active TB and mortality among PLHIV, and available TPT regimens. Last, we highlight policy-practice gaps and barriers to implementation as well as ongoing research needs to lower the burden of TB and HIV coinfection through preventive activities, innovative diagnostic tests, and cost-effectiveness studies.
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Dhana A, Hamada Y, Kengne AP, Kerkhoff AD, Broger T, Denkinger CM, Rangaka MX, Gupta-Wright A, Fielding K, Wood R, Huerga H, Rücker SCM, Bjerrum S, Johansen IS, Thit SS, Kyi MM, Hanson J, Barr DA, Meintjes G, Maartens G. Diagnostic accuracy of WHO screening criteria to guide lateral-flow lipoarabinomannan testing among HIV-positive inpatients: A systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. J Infect 2022; 85:40-48. [PMID: 35588942 PMCID: PMC10152564 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2022.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND WHO recommends urine lateral-flow lipoarabinomannan (LF-LAM) testing with AlereLAM in HIV-positive inpatients only if screening criteria are met. We assessed the performance of WHO screening criteria and alternative screening tests/strategies to guide LF-LAM testing and compared diagnostic accuracy of the WHO AlereLAM algorithm (WHO screening criteria followed by AlereLAM if screen positive) with AlereLAM and FujiLAM (a novel LF-LAM test) testing in all HIV-positive inpatients. METHODS We searched MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Library from Jan 1, 2011 to March 1, 2020 for studies among adult/adolescent HIV-positive inpatients regardless of tuberculosis signs and symptoms. The reference standards were (1) AlereLAM or FujiLAM for screening tests/strategies and (2) culture or Xpert for AlereLAM/FujiLAM. We determined proportion of inpatients eligible for AlereLAM using WHO screening criteria; assessed accuracy of WHO criteria and alternative screening tests/strategies to guide LF-LAM testing; compared accuracy of WHO AlereLAM algorithm with AlereLAM/FujiLAM testing in all; and determined diagnostic yield of AlereLAM, FujiLAM, and Xpert MTB/RIF (Xpert). We estimated pooled proportions with a random-effects model, assessed diagnostic accuracy using random-effects bivariate models, and assessed diagnostic yield descriptively. FINDINGS We obtained data from all 5 identified studies (n = 3,504). The pooled proportion of inpatients eligible for AlereLAM using WHO criteria was 93% (95%CI 91, 95). Among screening tests/strategies to guide LF-LAM testing, WHO criteria, C-reactive protein (≥5 mg/L), and CD4 count (<200 cells/μL) had high sensitivities but low specificities; cough (≥2 weeks), hemoglobin (<8 g/dL), body mass index (<18.5 kg/m2), lymphadenopathy, and WHO-defined danger signs had higher specificities but suboptimal sensitivities. AlereLAM in all had the same sensitivity (62%) and specificity (88%) as WHO AlereLAM algorithm. Sensitivity of FujiLAM and AlereLAM was 69% and 48%, while specificity was 88% and 96%, respectively. In 2 studies that collected sputum and non-sputum samples for Xpert and/or culture, diagnostic yield of sputum Xpert was 40-41%, AlereLAM was 39-76%, and urine Xpert was 35-62%. In one study, FujiLAM diagnosed 80% of tuberculosis cases (vs 39% for AlereLAM), and sputum Xpert combined with AlereLAM, urine Xpert, or FujiLAM diagnosed 61%, 81%, and 92% of all cases, respectively. INTERPRETATION WHO criteria and alternative screening tests/strategies have limited utility in guiding LF-LAM testing, suggesting that AlereLAM testing in all HIV-positive medical inpatients be implemented. Routine FujiLAM may improve tuberculosis diagnosis. FUNDING None.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashar Dhana
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Yohhei Hamada
- Centre for International Cooperation and Global TB Information, The Research Institute of Tuberculosis, Japan Anti-Tuberculosis Association, Tokyo, Japan; Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Andre P Kengne
- Non-communicable Diseases Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Andrew D Kerkhoff
- Division of HIV, Infectious Diseases and Global Medicine, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital and Trauma Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Tobias Broger
- Division of Tropical Medicine, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany; FIND, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Claudia M Denkinger
- Division of Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany; German Center of Infection Research, Heidelberg, Germany; FIND, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Molebogeng X Rangaka
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa (CIDRI-Africa), Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Ankur Gupta-Wright
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK; Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | | | - Robin Wood
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine (IDM), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Helena Huerga
- Field Epidemiology Department, Epicentre, Paris, France
| | | | - Stephanie Bjerrum
- Department of Clinical Research, Infectious Diseases, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Isik S Johansen
- Research Unit for Infectious Diseases, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Swe Swe Thit
- Department of Medicine, University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Yangon Division, Myanmar
| | - Mar Mar Kyi
- Department of Medicine, University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Yangon Division, Myanmar
| | - Josh Hanson
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - David A Barr
- Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Graeme Meintjes
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa (CIDRI-Africa), Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Gary Maartens
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa (CIDRI-Africa), Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
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Dhana A, Hamada Y, Kengne AP, Kerkhoff AD, Rangaka MX, Kredo T, Baddeley A, Miller C, Gupta-Wright A, Fielding K, Wood R, Huerga H, Rücker SCM, Heidebrecht C, Wilson D, Bjerrum S, Johansen IS, Thit SS, Kyi MM, Hanson J, Barr DA, Meintjes G, Maartens G. Tuberculosis screening among HIV-positive inpatients: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. Lancet HIV 2022; 9:e233-e241. [PMID: 35338834 PMCID: PMC8964502 DOI: 10.1016/s2352-3018(22)00002-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since 2011, WHO has recommended that HIV-positive inpatients be routinely screened for tuberculosis with the WHO four-symptom screen (W4SS) and, if screened positive, receive a molecular WHO-recommended rapid diagnostic test (eg, Xpert MTB/RIF [Xpert] assay). To inform updated WHO tuberculosis screening guidelines, we conducted a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis to assess the performance of W4SS and alternative screening tests to guide Xpert testing and compare the diagnostic accuracy of the WHO Xpert algorithm (ie, W4SS followed by Xpert) with Xpert for all HIV-positive inpatients. METHODS We searched MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Library from Jan 1, 2011, to March 1, 2020, for studies of adult and adolescent HIV-positive inpatients enrolled regardless of tuberculosis signs and symptoms. The separate reference standards were culture and Xpert. Xpert was selected since it is most likely to be the confirmatory test used in practice. We assessed the proportion of inpatients eligible for Xpert testing using the WHO algorithm; assessed the accuracy of W4SS and alternative screening tests or strategies to guide diagnostic testing; and compared the accuracy of the WHO Xpert algorithm (W4SS followed by Xpert) with Xpert for all. We obtained pooled proportion estimates with a random-effects model, assessed diagnostic accuracy by fitting random-effects bivariate models, and assessed diagnostic yield descriptively. This systematic review has been registered on PROSPERO (CRD42020155895). FINDINGS Of 6162 potentially eligible publications, six were eligible and we obtained data for all of the six publications (n=3660 participants). The pooled proportion of inpatients eligible for an Xpert was 90% (95% CI 89-91; n=3658). Among screening tests to guide diagnostic testing, W4SS and C-reactive protein (≥5 mg/L) had highest sensitivities (≥96%) but low specificities (≤12%); cough (≥2 weeks), haemoglobin concentration (<8 g/dL), body-mass index (<18·5 kg/m2), and lymphadenopathy had higher specificities (61-90%) but suboptimal sensitivities (12-57%). The WHO Xpert algorithm (W4SS followed by Xpert) had a sensitivity of 76% (95% CI 67-84) and specificity of 93% (88-96; n=637). Xpert for all had similar accuracy to the WHO Xpert algorithm: sensitivity was 78% (95% CI 69-85) and specificity was 93% (87-96; n=639). In two cohorts that had sputum and non-sputum samples collected for culture or Xpert, diagnostic yield of sputum Xpert was 41-70% and 61-64% for urine Xpert. INTERPRETATION The W4SS and other potential screening tests to guide Xpert testing have suboptimal accuracy in HIV-positive inpatients. On the basis of these findings, WHO now strongly recommends molecular rapid diagnostic testing in all medical HIV-positive inpatients in settings where tuberculosis prevalence is higher than 10%. FUNDING World Health Organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashar Dhana
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Yohhei Hamada
- Centre for International Cooperation and Global TB Information, The Research Institute of Tuberculosis, Japan Anti-Tuberculosis Association, Tokyo, Japan; Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Andre P Kengne
- Non-communicable Diseases Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Andrew D Kerkhoff
- Division of HIV, Infectious Diseases and Global Medicine, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital and Trauma Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Molebogeng X Rangaka
- Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Tamara Kredo
- Non-communicable Diseases Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa; Cochrane South Africa, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa
| | | | | | - Ankur Gupta-Wright
- Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK; Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | | | - Robin Wood
- Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Helena Huerga
- Field Epidemiology Department, Epicentre, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Douglas Wilson
- Department of Internal Medicine, Edendale Hospital, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | - Stephanie Bjerrum
- Research Unit for Infectious Diseases, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Isik S Johansen
- Research Unit for Infectious Diseases, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Swe Swe Thit
- Department of Medicine, University of Medicine, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mar Mar Kyi
- Department of Medicine, University of Medicine, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Josh Hanson
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - David A Barr
- Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Graeme Meintjes
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Gary Maartens
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
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Dhana A, Hamada Y, Kengne AP, Kerkhoff AD, Rangaka MX, Kredo T, Baddeley A, Miller C, Singh S, Hanifa Y, Grant AD, Fielding K, Affolabi D, Merle CS, Wachinou AP, Yoon C, Cattamanchi A, Hoffmann CJ, Martinson N, Mbu ET, Sander MS, Balcha TT, Skogmar S, Reeve BWP, Theron G, Ndlangalavu G, Modi S, Cavanaugh J, Swindells S, Chaisson RE, Ahmad Khan F, Howard AA, Wood R, Thit SS, Kyi MM, Hanson J, Drain PK, Shapiro AE, Kufa T, Churchyard G, Nguyen DT, Graviss EA, Bjerrum S, Johansen IS, Gersh JK, Horne DJ, LaCourse SM, Al-Darraji HAA, Kamarulzaman A, Kempker RR, Tukvadze N, Barr DA, Meintjes G, Maartens G. Tuberculosis screening among ambulatory people living with HIV: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2022; 22:507-518. [PMID: 34800394 PMCID: PMC8942858 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(21)00387-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The WHO-recommended tuberculosis screening and diagnostic algorithm in ambulatory people living with HIV is a four-symptom screen (known as the WHO-recommended four symptom screen [W4SS]) followed by a WHO-recommended molecular rapid diagnostic test (eg Xpert MTB/RIF [hereafter referred to as Xpert]) if W4SS is positive. To inform updated WHO guidelines, we aimed to assess the diagnostic accuracy of alternative screening tests and strategies for tuberculosis in this population. METHODS In this systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis, we updated a search of PubMed (MEDLINE), Embase, the Cochrane Library, and conference abstracts for publications from Jan 1, 2011, to March 12, 2018, done in a previous systematic review to include the period up to Aug 2, 2019. We screened the reference lists of identified pieces and contacted experts in the field. We included prospective cross-sectional, observational studies and randomised trials among adult and adolescent (age ≥10 years) ambulatory people living with HIV, irrespective of signs and symptoms of tuberculosis. We extracted study-level data using a standardised data extraction form, and we requested individual participant data from study authors. We aimed to compare the W4SS with alternative screening tests and strategies and the WHO-recommended algorithm (ie, W4SS followed by Xpert) with Xpert for all in terms of diagnostic accuracy (sensitivity and specificity), overall and in key subgroups (eg, by antiretroviral therapy [ART] status). The reference standard was culture. This study is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42020155895. FINDINGS We identified 25 studies, and obtained data from 22 studies (including 15 666 participants; 4347 [27·7%] of 15 663 participants with data were on ART). W4SS sensitivity was 82% (95% CI 72-89) and specificity was 42% (29-57). C-reactive protein (≥10 mg/L) had similar sensitivity to (77% [61-88]), but higher specificity (74% [61-83]; n=3571) than, W4SS. Cough (lasting ≥2 weeks), haemoglobin (<10 g/dL), body-mass index (<18·5 kg/m2), and lymphadenopathy had high specificities (80-90%) but low sensitivities (29-43%). The WHO-recommended algorithm had a sensitivity of 58% (50-66) and a specificity of 99% (98-100); Xpert for all had a sensitivity of 68% (57-76) and a specificity of 99% (98-99). In the one study that assessed both, the sensitivity of sputum Xpert Ultra was higher than sputum Xpert (73% [62-81] vs 57% [47-67]) and specificities were similar (98% [96-98] vs 99% [98-100]). Among outpatients on ART (4309 [99·1%] of 4347 people on ART), W4SS sensitivity was 53% (35-71) and specificity was 71% (51-85). In this population, a parallel strategy (two tests done at the same time) of W4SS with any chest x-ray abnormality had higher sensitivity (89% [70-97]) and lower specificity (33% [17-54]; n=2670) than W4SS alone; at a tuberculosis prevalence of 5%, this strategy would require 379 more rapid diagnostic tests per 1000 people living with HIV than W4SS but detect 18 more tuberculosis cases. Among outpatients not on ART (11 160 [71·8%] of 15 541 outpatients), W4SS sensitivity was 85% (76-91) and specificity was 37% (25-51). C-reactive protein (≥10 mg/L) alone had a similar sensitivity to (83% [79-86]), but higher specificity (67% [60-73]; n=3187) than, W4SS and a sequential strategy (both test positive) of W4SS then C-reactive protein (≥5 mg/L) had a similar sensitivity to (84% [75-90]), but higher specificity than (64% [57-71]; n=3187), W4SS alone; at 10% tuberculosis prevalence, these strategies would require 272 and 244 fewer rapid diagnostic tests per 1000 people living with HIV than W4SS but miss two and one more tuberculosis cases, respectively. INTERPRETATION C-reactive protein reduces the need for further rapid diagnostic tests without compromising sensitivity and has been included in the updated WHO tuberculosis screening guidelines. However, C-reactive protein data were scarce for outpatients on ART, necessitating future research regarding the utility of C-reactive protein in this group. Chest x-ray can be useful in outpatients on ART when combined with W4SS. The WHO-recommended algorithm has suboptimal sensitivity; Xpert for all offers slight sensitivity gains and would have major resource implications. FUNDING World Health Organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashar Dhana
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Yohhei Hamada
- Centre for International Cooperation and Global Tuberculosis Information, The Research Institute of Tuberculosis, Japan Anti-Tuberculosis Association, Tokyo, Japan; Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Andre P Kengne
- Non-communicable Diseases Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Andrew D Kerkhoff
- Division of HIV, Infectious Diseases and Global Medicine, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital and Trauma Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Molebogeng X Rangaka
- Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Tamara Kredo
- Cochrane South Africa, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa; Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Annabel Baddeley
- Global Tuberculosis Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Cecily Miller
- Global Tuberculosis Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Satvinder Singh
- Global HIV, Hepatitis and STIs Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Yasmeen Hanifa
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Alison D Grant
- TB Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK; Africa Health Research Institute, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa; School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | | | | | - Corinne S Merle
- UNICEF/UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Christina Yoon
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Center for Tuberculosis, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Adithya Cattamanchi
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Center for Tuberculosis, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Neil Martinson
- Perinatal HIV Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Johns Hopkins University Center for Tuberculosis Research, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Taye T Balcha
- Clinical Infection Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden; Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Sten Skogmar
- Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Byron W P Reeve
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Grant Theron
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Gcobisa Ndlangalavu
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa
| | - Surbhi Modi
- US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | | | - Richard E Chaisson
- Johns Hopkins University Center for Tuberculosis Research, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Faiz Ahmad Khan
- McGill International Tuberculosis Centre, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Andrea A Howard
- ICAP at Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Robin Wood
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Swe Swe Thit
- Department of Medicine, University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Yangon Division, Myanmar
| | - Mar Mar Kyi
- Department of Medicine, University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Yangon Division, Myanmar
| | - Josh Hanson
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Paul K Drain
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Adrienne E Shapiro
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Tendesayi Kufa
- School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Centre for HIV and STIs, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Gavin Churchyard
- School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; The Aurum Institute, Parktown, South Africa
| | - Duc T Nguyen
- Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Edward A Graviss
- Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Stephanie Bjerrum
- Department of Clinical Research, Infectious Diseases, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Isik S Johansen
- Research Unit for Infectious Diseases, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | | | - David J Horne
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sylvia M LaCourse
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Global Health, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Adeeba Kamarulzaman
- Centre of Excellence for Research in AIDS, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Russell R Kempker
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Nestani Tukvadze
- National Center for Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - David A Barr
- Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Graeme Meintjes
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Gary Maartens
- Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
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Yin X, Ye QQ, Wu KF, Zeng JY, Li NX, Mo JJ, Huang PY, Xie LM, Xie LY, Guo XG. Diagnostic value of Lipoarabinomannan antigen for detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis in adults and children with or without HIV infection. J Clin Lab Anal 2022; 36:e24238. [PMID: 35034374 PMCID: PMC8842169 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.24238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Even today, tuberculosis (TB) remains a leading public health problem; yet, the current diagnostic methods still have a few shortcomings. Lipoarabinomannan (LAM) provides an opportunity for TB diagnosis, and urine LAM detection seems to have a promising and widely applicable prospect. Design or methods Four databases were systematically searched for eligible studies, and the quality of the studies was evaluated using the quality assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies‐2 (QUADAS‐2). Graphs and tables were created to show sensitivity, specificity, likelihood ratios, diagnostic odds ratio (DOR), the area under the curve (AUC), and so on. Results Based on the included 67 studies, the pooled sensitivity of urine LAM was 48% and specificity was 89%. In the subgroup analyses, the FujiLAM test had higher sensitivity (69%) and specificity (92%). Furthermore, among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 50% of TB patients were diagnosed using a urine LAM test. Besides, the CD4+ cell count was inversely proportional to the sensitivity. Conclusions Urine LAM is a promising diagnostic test for TB, particularly using the FujiLAM in HIV‐infected adults whose CD4+ cell count is ≤100 per μl. Besides, the urine LAM test shows various sensitivities and specificities in different subgroups in terms of age, HIV infection status, CD4+ cell count, and testing method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Yin
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Pediatrics, The Pediatrics School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qi-Qing Ye
- Department of Pediatrics, The Pediatrics School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ke-Fan Wu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Sixth Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical university, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ji-Yuan Zeng
- Department of Pediatrics, The Pediatrics School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nan-Xi Li
- Department of Psychiatric Medicine, The Mental Health School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun-Jian Mo
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Sixth Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical university, Guangzhou, China
| | - Pei-Ying Huang
- Nanshan School, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li-Min Xie
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li-Ying Xie
- Department of Pediatrics, The Pediatrics School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xu-Guang Guo
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Clinical Medicine, The Third Clinical School of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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8
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Nyein PP, Aung E, Aung NM, Kyi MM, Boyd M, Lin KS, Hanson J. The impact of gender and the social determinants of health on the clinical course of people living with HIV in Myanmar: an observational study. AIDS Res Ther 2021; 18:50. [PMID: 34372879 PMCID: PMC8350926 DOI: 10.1186/s12981-021-00364-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a growing recognition of the impact of gender and the social determinants of health on the clinical course of people living with HIV (PLHIV). However, the relative contribution of these factors to clinical outcomes of PLHIV is incompletely defined in many countries. This study was performed to gain a greater understanding of the non-clinical determinants of prognosis of PLHIV in Myanmar. METHODS Selected demographic, behavioural and socioeconomic characteristics of outpatients at two specialist HIV hospitals and one general hospital in Yangon, Myanmar were correlated with their subsequent clinical course; a poor outcome was defined as death, hospitalisation, loss to follow-up or a detectable viral load at 6 months of follow-up. RESULTS 221 consecutive individuals with advanced HIV commencing anti-retroviral therapy (ART) were enrolled in the study; their median CD4 T-cell count was 92 (44-158) cells/mm3, 138 (62.4%) were male. Socioeconomic disadvantage was common: the median (interquartile range (IQR) monthly per-capita income in the cohort was US$48 (31-77); 153 (69.9%) had not completed high school. However, in a multivariate analysis that considered demographic, behavioural, clinical factors and social determinants of health, male gender was the only predictor of a poor outcome: odds ratio (95% confidence interval): 2.33 (1.26-4.32, p = 0.007). All eight of the deaths and hospitalisations in the cohort occurred in males (p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS Men starting ART in Myanmar have a poorer prognosis than women. Expanded implementation of gender-specific management strategies is likely to be necessary to improve outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phyo Pyae Nyein
- Mingaladon Specialist Hospital, Mingaladon Township, Yangon, Myanmar
- University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Eithandee Aung
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ne Myo Aung
- University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mar Mar Kyi
- University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mark Boyd
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Kyaw Swar Lin
- Mingaladon Specialist Hospital, Mingaladon Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Josh Hanson
- University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar.
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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9
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Flores J, Cancino JC, Chavez-Galan L. Lipoarabinomannan as a Point-of-Care Assay for Diagnosis of Tuberculosis: How Far Are We to Use It? Front Microbiol 2021; 12:638047. [PMID: 33935997 PMCID: PMC8081860 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.638047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is still a severe public health problem; the current diagnostic tests have limitations that delay treatment onset. Lipoarabinomannan (LAM) is a glycolipid that is a component of the cell wall of the bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the etiologic agent of TB. This glycolipid is excreted as a soluble form in urine. The World Health Organization has established that the design of new TB diagnostic methods is one of the priorities within the EndTB Strategy. LAM has been suggested as a biomarker to develop diagnostic tests based on its identification in urine, and it is one of the most prominent candidates to develop point-of-care diagnostic test because urine samples can be easily collected. Moreover, LAM can regulate the immune response in the host and can be found in the serum of TB patients, where it probably affects a wide variety of host cell populations, consequently influencing the quality of both innate and adaptive immune responses during TB infection. Here, we revised the evidence that supports that LAM could be used as a tool for the development of new point-of-care tests for TB diagnosis, and we discussed the mechanisms that could contribute to the low sensitivity of diagnostic testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Flores
- Laboratory of Integrative Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico.,Laboratory of Immunomicrobiology, Department of Microbiology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Juan Carlos Cancino
- Laboratory of Immunomicrobiology, Department of Microbiology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Leslie Chavez-Galan
- Laboratory of Integrative Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico
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10
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Zifodya JS, Kreniske JS, Schiller I, Kohli M, Dendukuri N, Schumacher SG, Ochodo EA, Haraka F, Zwerling AA, Pai M, Steingart KR, Horne DJ. Xpert Ultra versus Xpert MTB/RIF for pulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in adults with presumptive pulmonary tuberculosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2021; 2:CD009593. [PMID: 33616229 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd009593.pub5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xpert MTB/RIF and Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra (Xpert Ultra) are World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended rapid tests that simultaneously detect tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in people with signs and symptoms of tuberculosis. This review builds on our recent extensive Cochrane Review of Xpert MTB/RIF accuracy. OBJECTIVES To compare the diagnostic accuracy of Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF for the detection of pulmonary tuberculosis and detection of rifampicin resistance in adults with presumptive pulmonary tuberculosis. For pulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance, we also investigated potential sources of heterogeneity. We also summarized the frequency of Xpert Ultra trace-positive results, and estimated the accuracy of Xpert Ultra after repeat testing in those with trace-positive results. SEARCH METHODS We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register, MEDLINE, Embase, Science Citation Index, Web of Science, LILACS, Scopus, the WHO ICTRP, the ISRCTN registry, and ProQuest to 28 January 2020 with no language restriction. SELECTION CRITERIA We included diagnostic accuracy studies using respiratory specimens in adults with presumptive pulmonary tuberculosis that directly compared the index tests. For pulmonary tuberculosis detection, the reference standards were culture and a composite reference standard. For rifampicin resistance, the reference standards were culture-based drug susceptibility testing and line probe assays. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Two review authors independently extracted data using a standardized form, including data by smear and HIV status. We assessed risk of bias using QUADAS-2 and QUADAS-C. We performed meta-analyses comparing pooled sensitivities and specificities, separately for pulmonary tuberculosis detection and rifampicin resistance detection, and separately by reference standard. Most analyses used a bivariate random-effects model. For tuberculosis detection, we estimated accuracy in studies in participants who were not selected based on prior microscopy testing or history of tuberculosis. We performed subgroup analyses by smear status, HIV status, and history of tuberculosis. We summarized Xpert Ultra trace results. MAIN RESULTS We identified nine studies (3500 participants): seven had unselected participants (2834 participants). All compared Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF for pulmonary tuberculosis detection; seven studies used a paired comparative accuracy design, and two studies used a randomized design. Five studies compared Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF for rifampicin resistance detection; four studies used a paired design, and one study used a randomized design. Of the nine included studies, seven (78%) were mainly or exclusively in high tuberculosis burden countries. For pulmonary tuberculosis detection, most studies had low risk of bias in all domains. Pulmonary tuberculosis detection Xpert Ultra pooled sensitivity and specificity (95% credible interval) against culture were 90.9% (86.2 to 94.7) and 95.6% (93.0 to 97.4) (7 studies, 2834 participants; high-certainty evidence) versus Xpert MTB/RIF pooled sensitivity and specificity of 84.7% (78.6 to 89.9) and 98.4% (97.0 to 99.3) (7 studies, 2835 participants; high-certainty evidence). The difference in the accuracy of Xpert Ultra minus Xpert MTB/RIF was estimated at 6.3% (0.1 to 12.8) for sensitivity and -2.7% (-5.7 to -0.5) for specificity. If the point estimates for Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF are applied to a hypothetical cohort of 1000 patients, where 10% of those presenting with symptoms have pulmonary tuberculosis, Xpert Ultra will miss 9 cases, and Xpert MTB/RIF will miss 15 cases. The number of people wrongly diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis would be 40 with Xpert Ultra and 14 with Xpert MTB/RIF. In smear-negative, culture-positive participants, pooled sensitivity was 77.5% (67.6 to 85.6) for Xpert Ultra versus 60.6% (48.4 to 71.7) for Xpert MTB/RIF; pooled specificity was 95.8% (92.9 to 97.7) for Xpert Ultra versus 98.8% (97.7 to 99.5) for Xpert MTB/RIF (6 studies). In people living with HIV, pooled sensitivity was 87.6% (75.4 to 94.1) for Xpert Ultra versus 74.9% (58.7 to 86.2) for Xpert MTB/RIF; pooled specificity was 92.8% (82.3 to 97.0) for Xpert Ultra versus 99.7% (98.6 to 100.0) for Xpert MTB/RIF (3 studies). In participants with a history of tuberculosis, pooled sensitivity was 84.2% (72.5 to 91.7) for Xpert Ultra versus 81.8% (68.7 to 90.0) for Xpert MTB/RIF; pooled specificity was 88.2% (70.5 to 96.6) for Xpert Ultra versus 97.4% (91.7 to 99.5) for Xpert MTB/RIF (4 studies). The proportion of Ultra trace-positive results ranged from 3.0% to 30.4%. Data were insufficient to estimate the accuracy of Xpert Ultra repeat testing in individuals with initial trace-positive results. Rifampicin resistance detection Pooled sensitivity and specificity were 94.9% (88.9 to 97.9) and 99.1% (97.7 to 99.8) (5 studies, 921 participants; high-certainty evidence) for Xpert Ultra versus 95.3% (90.0 to 98.1) and 98.8% (97.2 to 99.6) (5 studies, 930 participants; high-certainty evidence) for Xpert MTB/RIF. The difference in the accuracy of Xpert Ultra minus Xpert MTB/RIF was estimated at -0.3% (-6.9 to 5.7) for sensitivity and 0.3% (-1.2 to 2.0) for specificity. If the point estimates for Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF are applied to a hypothetical cohort of 1000 patients, where 10% of those presenting with symptoms have rifampicin resistance, Xpert Ultra will miss 5 cases, and Xpert MTB/RIF will miss 5 cases. The number of people wrongly diagnosed with rifampicin resistance would be 8 with Xpert Ultra and 11 with Xpert MTB/RIF. We identified a higher number of rifampicin resistance indeterminate results with Xpert Ultra, pooled proportion 7.6% (2.4 to 21.0) compared to Xpert MTB/RIF pooled proportion 0.8% (0.2 to 2.4). The estimated difference in the pooled proportion of indeterminate rifampicin resistance results for Xpert Ultra versus Xpert MTB/RIF was 6.7% (1.4 to 20.1). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS Xpert Ultra has higher sensitivity and lower specificity than Xpert MTB/RIF for pulmonary tuberculosis, especially in smear-negative participants and people living with HIV. Xpert Ultra specificity was lower than that of Xpert MTB/RIF in participants with a history of tuberculosis. The sensitivity and specificity trade-off would be expected to vary by setting. For detection of rifampicin resistance, Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF had similar sensitivity and specificity. Ultra trace-positive results were common. Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF provide accurate results and can allow rapid initiation of treatment for rifampicin-resistant and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry S Zifodya
- Department of Medicine, Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care, & Environmental Medicine , Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Jonah S Kreniske
- Department of Internal Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Ian Schiller
- Centre for Outcomes Research, McGill University Health Centre - Research Institute, Montreal, Canada
| | - Mikashmi Kohli
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Nandini Dendukuri
- Centre for Outcomes Research, McGill University Health Centre - Research Institute, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Eleanor A Ochodo
- Centre for Evidence-based Health Care, Department of Global Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Frederick Haraka
- Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
- Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo, Tanzania
| | - Alice A Zwerling
- School of Epidemiology & Public Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Madhukar Pai
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Karen R Steingart
- Honorary Research Fellow, Department of Clinical Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - David J Horne
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, and Firland Northwest TB Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Mar Minn M, Aung NM, Kyaw DZ, Zaw TT, Chann PN, Khine HE, McLoughlin S, Kelleher AD, Tun NL, Oo TZC, Myint NPST, Law M, Mar Kyi M, Hanson J. The comparative ability of commonly used disease severity scores to predict death or a requirement for ICU care in patients hospitalised with possible sepsis in Yangon, Myanmar. Int J Infect Dis 2021; 104:543-550. [PMID: 33493689 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2021.01.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the comparative prognostic utility of commonly used disease prediction scores in adults with presumed community-acquired sepsis in a resource-limited tropical setting. METHODS This prospective, observational study was performed on the medical ward of a tertiary-referral hospital in Yangon, Myanmar. The ability of the National Early Warning Score 2 (NEWS2), quick NEWS (qNEWS), quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) score, Universal Vital Assessment (UVA) and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) scores to predict a complicated inpatient course (death or requirement for intensive care unit (ICU) support) in patients with two or more systemic inflammatory response syndrome criteria was determined. RESULTS Among the 509 patients, 30 (6%) were HIV-seropositive. The most commonly confirmed diagnoses were tuberculosis (30/509, 5.9%) and measles (26/509, 5.1%). Overall, 75/509 (14.7%) died or required ICU support. All the scores except the qSOFA score, which was inferior, had a similar ability to predict a complicated inpatient course. CONCLUSIONS In this resource-limited tropical setting, disease severity scores calculated at presentation using only vital signs-such as the NEWS2 score-identified high-risk sepsis patient as well as the SOFA score, which is calculated at 24 h and which also requires laboratory data. Use of these simple clinical scores can be used to facilitate recognition of the high-risk patient and to optimise the use of finite resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mar Mar Minn
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Ne Myo Aung
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar; University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar; Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - De Zin Kyaw
- Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Thet Tun Zaw
- Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Pyae Nyein Chann
- Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Hnin Ei Khine
- Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | | | | | - Ne Lin Tun
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar; University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar; Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Thin Zar Cho Oo
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar; University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar; Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Nan Phyu Sin Toe Myint
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar; University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar; Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Matthew Law
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mar Mar Kyi
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar; University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar; Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Josh Hanson
- University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar; Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar; The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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Chatla C, Mishra N, Jojula M, Adepu R, Puttala M. A systematic review of utility of urine lipoarabinomannan in detecting tuberculosis among HIV-positive tuberculosis suspects. Lung India 2021; 38:64-73. [PMID: 33402640 PMCID: PMC8066934 DOI: 10.4103/lungindia.lungindia_574_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sputum smear microscopy (SSM), though regarded as an inexpensive and popular method for detecting tuberculosis (TB), lacks adequate sensitivity, specifically in adult people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV). Urine lipoarabinomannan (LAM) is a promising diagnostic tool among PLHIV with CD4 cell count < 200 cells/μl. We attempted to review all the studies undertaken in identifying the utility of urine LAM in diagnosing TB, especially among PLHIV. We searched PubMed, Google Scholar, and MEDLINE databases for studies reporting diagnostic utility of urine LAM status in PLHIV, published in the last 20 years till December 2019. The keywords used for searching were “Tuberculosis,” “HIV/AIDS,” “Diagnosis,” “Screening” “Lipoarabinomannan,” and “Urine.” Our search resulted in 137 shortlisted citations, of which 67 related manuscripts were identified for detailed study. Based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, 37 studies were reviewed in detail. Average sample size of these studies was 464 (range = 81–2528; SD = 427). Crude average sensitivity of urine LAM in culture-confirmed TB cases was 44.1% (range = 8.3–93) while that of SSM was 38.6% (range = 14–65). However, sensitivity of urine LAM + SSM was 60.4% (range = 38.3–92.7), demonstrating the utility of SSM + urine LAM combination for detecting TB. Specificity was similar between urine LAM and SSM with 92.7% (range = 76–100) and 97.9% (range = 93.9–100), respectively. Majority of the studies demonstrated higher sensitivity of urine LAM in those with lesser the CD4 count, with immunocompromised and with debilitation who cannot produce self-expectorated sputum. We conclude that urine LAM is a potential diagnostic test in the algorithms involving immunocompromised, debilitated patients and specifically in PLHIV whose CD4 count is ≤100 cells/μl.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chakrapani Chatla
- Symbiosis School of Biological Sciences, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, Maharashtra; Department of Microbiology, Sri Shivani College of Pharmacy, Warangal, Telangana, India
| | - Neetu Mishra
- Symbiosis School of Biological Sciences, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, Maharashtra, India
| | - Malathi Jojula
- Department of Microbiology, Sri Shivani College of Pharmacy, Warangal, Telangana, India
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Hanson J, Nyein PP, Aung NM, Kyi MM. Time for pragmatic, prospective clinical trials to determine the role of empirical antibacterial therapy in critically ill adults hospitalized with malaria. Int J Infect Dis 2020; 102:28-31. [PMID: 33017698 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.09.1472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children with severe falciparum malaria in malaria-endemic regions are predisposed to developing life-threatening bacterial co-infection. International guidelines therefore recommend empirical broad-spectrum antibacterial therapy in these children. Few studies have examined co-infection in adults, although it has been believed to be relatively rare; antibacterial therapy is therefore not routinely recommended in adults with falciparum malaria. DISCUSSION However, the fundamental pathophysiology of falciparum malaria in adults and children is the same; it is therefore unclear why adults would not also be predisposed to bacterial infection. Indeed, recent studies have identified bacteraemia in >10% of adults hospitalized with malaria. Some have suggested that these adults probably had bacterial sepsis, with the parasitaemia an incidental finding. However, it is usually impossible in resource-limited settings to determine-at presentation-whether critically ill, parasitaemic adults have severe malaria, bacterial sepsis, or both. Given the significant case-fatality rates of severe malaria and bacterial sepsis, the pragmatic initial approach would be to cover both possibilities. CONCLUSIONS Life-threatening bacterial co-infection may be more common in critically ill adults with malaria than previously believed. While further prospective data are awaited to confirm these findings, it might be more appropriate to provide empirical aantibacterial cover in these patients than current guidelines suggest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josh Hanson
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar; Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar.
| | - Phyo Pyae Nyein
- Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar; Mingaladon Specialist Hospital, Mingaladon Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Ne Myo Aung
- University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar; Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar; Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mar Mar Kyi
- University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar; Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar; Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
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14
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Should Urine-LAM Tests Be Used in TB Symptomatic HIV-Positive Patients When No CD4 Count Is Available? A Prospective Observational Cohort Study From Malawi. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2020; 83:24-30. [PMID: 31633613 PMCID: PMC6903332 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000002206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text. Current eligibility criteria for urine lateral-flow lipoarabinomannan assay (LF-LAM) in ambulatory, HIV-positive patients rely on the CD4 count. We investigated the diagnostic yield of LF-LAM and the 6-month mortality in ambulatory, TB symptomatic, HIV-positive patients regardless of their CD4 count.
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15
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Myint NPST, Zaw TT, Sain K, Waiyan S, Danta M, Cooper D, Aung NM, Kyi MM, Hanson J. Sequential Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy in Myanmar; a randomized clinical trial of efficacy and tolerability. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020; 35:617-623. [PMID: 31758571 DOI: 10.1111/jgh.14942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM There is little published research to examine the best approach to the management of Helicobacter pylori in Myanmar. This study aimed to determine the relative efficacy and tolerability of sequential eradication therapy compared to Myanmar's current recommendation of a concomitant four drug regimen. METHODS Patients were screened for H. pylori using monoclonal Stool Antigen Testing (SAT). Those testing positive were randomized 1:1 to receive receive Myanmar's first-line regimen of 14 days of concomitant rabeprazole, clarithromycin, amoxycillin and tinidazole (140 pills, cost US$23) or 10 days of sequential rabeprazole, clarithromycin, amoxycillin and tinidazole (60 pills, cost US$10). Adherence and adverse effects were recorded, and the efficacy of the regimens assessed with repeat SAT. RESULTS Of the 1011 patients screened for H. pylori infection, 313 (31%) tested positive. There was no statistical difference in the cure rates of the two regimens in either intention-to-treat: 128/157 (82%; 95% confidence interval (CI): 75-87%) receiving sequential therapy versus 123/156 (79%; 95% CI: 72-85%) receiving concomitant therapy (P = 0.55) or per-protocol analysis: 125/131 (95%; 95% CI: 90-98) receiving sequential therapy versus 121/130 (93%; 95% CI: 87-96) receiving concomitant therapy (P = 0.42). Side effects of therapy were reported in 54/157 (47%) patients taking sequential therapy compared with 62/156 (53%) taking concomitant therapy, but this difference did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.33). CONCLUSIONS In this high-burden, resource-poor setting, less expensive sequential therapy was as effective and as well tolerated as the currently recommended concomitant four drug regimen for eradication of H. pylori.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Phyu Sin Toe Myint
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar.,University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar.,Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Thet Tun Zaw
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Kyauk Sain
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Soe Waiyan
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mark Danta
- St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Sydney, Australia.,Department of Gastroenterology, St Vincent's Hospital, Darlinghurst, Sydney, Australia
| | - David Cooper
- Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar.,Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ne Myo Aung
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar.,University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar.,Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mar Mar Kyi
- Insein General Hospital, Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar.,University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar.,Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Josh Hanson
- University of Medicine 2, North Okkalapa Township, Yangon, Myanmar.,Myanmar Australia Research Collaboration for Health (MARCH), Yangon, Myanmar.,Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Sydney, Australia
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16
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Bjerrum S, Schiller I, Dendukuri N, Kohli M, Nathavitharana RR, Zwerling AA, Denkinger CM, Steingart KR, Shah M. Lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay for detecting active tuberculosis in people living with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019; 10:CD011420. [PMID: 31633805 PMCID: PMC6802713 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd011420.pub3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan (LF-LAM) assay Alere Determine™ TB LAM Ag is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) to help detect active tuberculosis in HIV-positive people with severe HIV disease. This review update asks the question, "does new evidence justify the use of LF-LAM in a broader group of people?", and is part of the WHO process for updating guidance on the use of LF-LAM. OBJECTIVES To assess the accuracy of LF-LAM for the diagnosis of active tuberculosis among HIV-positive adults with signs and symptoms of tuberculosis (symptomatic participants) and among HIV-positive adults irrespective of signs and symptoms of tuberculosis (unselected participants not assessed for tuberculosis signs and symptoms).The proposed role for LF-LAM is as an add on to clinical judgement and with other tests to assist in diagnosing tuberculosis. SEARCH METHODS We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register; MEDLINE, Embase, Science Citation Index, Web of Science, Latin American Caribbean Health Sciences Literature, Scopus, the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Registry, and ProQuest, without language restriction to 11 May 2018. SELECTION CRITERIA Randomized trials, cross-sectional, and observational cohort studies that evaluated LF-LAM for active tuberculosis (pulmonary and extrapulmonary) in HIV-positive adults. We included studies that used the manufacturer's recommended threshold for test positivity, either the updated reference card with four bands (grade 1 of 4) or the corresponding prior reference card grade with five bands (grade 2 of 5). The reference standard was culture or nucleic acid amplification test from any body site (microbiological). We considered a higher quality reference standard to be one in which two or more specimen types were evaluated for tuberculosis diagnosis and a lower quality reference standard to be one in which only one specimen type was evaluated. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Two review authors independently extracted data using a standardized form and REDCap electronic data capture tools. We appraised the quality of studies using the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies-2 (QUADAS-2) tool and performed meta-analyses to estimate pooled sensitivity and specificity using a bivariate random-effects model and a Bayesian approach. We analyzed studies enrolling strictly symptomatic participants separately from those enrolling unselected participants. We investigated pre-defined sources of heterogeneity including the influence of CD4 count and clinical setting on the accuracy estimates. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach. MAIN RESULTS We included 15 unique studies (nine new studies and six studies from the original review that met the inclusion criteria): eight studies among symptomatic adults and seven studies among unselected adults. All studies were conducted in low- or middle-income countries. Risk of bias was high in the patient selection and reference standard domains, mainly because studies excluded participants unable to produce sputum and used a lower quality reference standard.Participants with tuberculosis symptomsLF-LAM pooled sensitivity (95% credible interval (CrI) ) was 42% (31% to 55%) (moderate-certainty evidence) and pooled specificity was 91% (85% to 95%) (very low-certainty evidence), (8 studies, 3449 participants, 37% with tuberculosis).For a population of 1000 people where 300 have microbiologically-confirmed tuberculosis, the utilization of LF-LAM would result in: 189 to be LF-LAM positive: of these, 63 (33%) would not have tuberculosis (false-positives); and 811 to be LF-LAM negative: of these, 174 (21%) would have tuberculosis (false-negatives).By clinical setting, pooled sensitivity was 52% (40% to 64%) among inpatients versus 29% (17% to 47%) among outpatients; and pooled specificity was 87% (78% to 93%) among inpatients versus 96% (91% to 99%) among outpatients. Stratified by CD4 cell count, pooled sensitivity increased, and specificity decreased with lower CD4 cell count.Unselected participants not assessed for signs and symptoms of tuberculosisLF-LAM pooled sensitivity was 35% (22% to 50%), (moderate-certainty evidence) and pooled specificity was 95% (89% to 96%), (low-certainty evidence), (7 studies, 3365 participants, 13% with tuberculosis).For a population of 1000 people where 100 have microbiologically-confirmed tuberculosis, the utilization of LF-LAM would result in: 80 to be LF-LAM positive: of these, 45 (56%) would not have tuberculosis (false-positives); and 920 to be LF-LAM negative: of these, 65 (7%) would have tuberculosis (false-negatives).By clinical setting, pooled sensitivity was 62% (41% to 83%) among inpatients versus 31% (18% to 47%) among outpatients; pooled specificity was 84% (48% to 96%) among inpatients versus 95% (87% to 99%) among outpatients. Stratified by CD4 cell count, pooled sensitivity increased, and specificity decreased with lower CD4 cell count. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS We found that LF-LAM has a sensitivity of 42% to diagnose tuberculosis in HIV-positive individuals with tuberculosis symptoms and 35% in HIV-positive individuals not assessed for tuberculosis symptoms, consistent with findings reported previously. Regardless of how people are enrolled, sensitivity is higher in inpatients and those with lower CD4 cell, but a concomitant lower specificity. As a simple point-of-care test that does not depend upon sputum evaluation, LF-LAM may assist with the diagnosis of tuberculosis, particularly when a sputum specimen cannot be produced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Bjerrum
- University of Southern DenmarkDepartment of Clinical Research, Research Unit of Infectious DiseasesOdenseDenmark
- Odense University HospitalMyCRESD, Mycobacterial Research Centre of Southern Denmark, Department of Infectious DiseasesSdr. Boulevard 29OdenseDenmark
- Odense University HospitalOPEN, Odense Patient data Explorative NetworkOdenseDenmarkDenmark
| | - Ian Schiller
- McGill University Health Centre ‐ Research InstituteDivision of Clinical EpidemiologyMontrealQCCanada
| | - Nandini Dendukuri
- McGill University Health Centre ‐ Research InstituteDivision of Clinical EpidemiologyMontrealQCCanada
| | - Mikashmi Kohli
- McGill UniversityDepartment of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational HealthMontrealCanada
| | - Ruvandhi R Nathavitharana
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical SchoolDivision of Infectious DiseasesBostonUSA
| | - Alice A Zwerling
- University of OttawaSchool of Epidemiology & Public Health600 Peter Morand Crescent, Room 301EOttawaOntarioCanadaK1G5Z3
| | - Claudia M Denkinger
- FINDGenevaSwitzerland
- University Hospital HeidelbergCenter of Infectious DiseasesHeidelbergGermany
| | - Karen R Steingart
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical MedicineHonorary Research FellowPembroke PlaceLiverpoolUK
| | - Maunank Shah
- John Hopkins University School of MedicineDepartment of Medicine, Division of Infectious DiseasesBaltimoreMarylandUSA
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Horne DJ, Kohli M, Zifodya JS, Schiller I, Dendukuri N, Tollefson D, Schumacher SG, Ochodo EA, Pai M, Steingart KR. Xpert MTB/RIF and Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra for pulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019; 6:CD009593. [PMID: 31173647 PMCID: PMC6555588 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd009593.pub4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xpert MTB/RIF (Xpert MTB/RIF) and Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra (Xpert Ultra), the newest version, are the only World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended rapid tests that simultaneously detect tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in persons with signs and symptoms of tuberculosis, at lower health system levels. A previous Cochrane Review found Xpert MTB/RIF sensitive and specific for tuberculosis (Steingart 2014). Since the previous review, new studies have been published. We performed a review update for an upcoming WHO policy review. OBJECTIVES To determine diagnostic accuracy of Xpert MTB/RIF and Xpert Ultra for tuberculosis in adults with presumptive pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) and for rifampicin resistance in adults with presumptive rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis. SEARCH METHODS We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register, MEDLINE, Embase, Science Citation Index, Web of Science, Latin American Caribbean Health Sciences Literature, Scopus, the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Registry, and ProQuest, to 11 October 2018, without language restriction. SELECTION CRITERIA Randomized trials, cross-sectional, and cohort studies using respiratory specimens that evaluated Xpert MTB/RIF, Xpert Ultra, or both against the reference standard, culture for tuberculosis and culture-based drug susceptibility testing or MTBDRplus for rifampicin resistance. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Four review authors independently extracted data using a standardized form. When possible, we also extracted data by smear and HIV status. We assessed study quality using QUADAS-2 and performed meta-analyses to estimate pooled sensitivity and specificity separately for tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance. We investigated potential sources of heterogeneity. Most analyses used a bivariate random-effects model. For tuberculosis detection, we first estimated accuracy using all included studies and then only the subset of studies where participants were unselected, i.e. not selected based on prior microscopy testing. MAIN RESULTS We identified in total 95 studies (77 new studies since the previous review): 86 studies (42,091 participants) evaluated Xpert MTB/RIF for tuberculosis and 57 studies (8287 participants) for rifampicin resistance. One study compared Xpert MTB/RIF and Xpert Ultra on the same participant specimen.Tuberculosis detectionOf the total 86 studies, 45 took place in high tuberculosis burden and 50 in high TB/HIV burden countries. Most studies had low risk of bias.Xpert MTB/RIF pooled sensitivity and specificity (95% credible Interval (CrI)) were 85% (82% to 88%) and 98% (97% to 98%), (70 studies, 37,237 unselected participants; high-certainty evidence). We found similar accuracy when we included all studies.For a population of 1000 people where 100 have tuberculosis on culture, 103 would be Xpert MTB/RIF-positive and 18 (17%) would not have tuberculosis (false-positives); 897 would be Xpert MTB/RIF-negative and 15 (2%) would have tuberculosis (false-negatives).Xpert Ultra sensitivity (95% confidence interval (CI)) was 88% (85% to 91%) versus Xpert MTB/RIF 83% (79% to 86%); Xpert Ultra specificity was 96% (94% to 97%) versus Xpert MTB/RIF 98% (97% to 99%), (1 study, 1439 participants; moderate-certainty evidence).Xpert MTB/RIF pooled sensitivity was 98% (97% to 98%) in smear-positive and 67% (62% to 72%) in smear-negative, culture-positive participants, (45 studies). Xpert MTB/RIF pooled sensitivity was 88% (83% to 92%) in HIV-negative and 81% (75% to 86%) in HIV-positive participants; specificities were similar 98% (97% to 99%), (14 studies).Rifampicin resistance detectionXpert MTB/RIF pooled sensitivity and specificity (95% Crl) were 96% (94% to 97%) and 98% (98% to 99%), (48 studies, 8020 participants; high-certainty evidence).For a population of 1000 people where 100 have rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis, 114 would be positive for rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis and 18 (16%) would not have rifampicin resistance (false-positives); 886 would be would be negative for rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis and four (0.4%) would have rifampicin resistance (false-negatives).Xpert Ultra sensitivity (95% CI) was 95% (90% to 98%) versus Xpert MTB/RIF 95% (91% to 98%); Xpert Ultra specificity was 98% (97% to 99%) versus Xpert MTB/RIF 98% (96% to 99%), (1 study, 551 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS We found Xpert MTB/RIF to be sensitive and specific for diagnosing PTB and rifampicin resistance, consistent with findings reported previously. Xpert MTB/RIF was more sensitive for tuberculosis in smear-positive than smear-negative participants and HIV-negative than HIV-positive participants. Compared with Xpert MTB/RIF, Xpert Ultra had higher sensitivity and lower specificity for tuberculosis and similar sensitivity and specificity for rifampicin resistance (1 study). Xpert MTB/RIF and Xpert Ultra provide accurate results and can allow rapid initiation of treatment for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Horne
- University of WashingtonDepartment of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, and Firland Northwest TB CenterSeattleUSA
| | - Mikashmi Kohli
- McGill UniversityDepartment of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational HealthMontrealCanada
| | - Jerry S Zifodya
- University of WashingtonPulmonary and Critical Care Medicine325 9th Avenue – Campus Box 359762SeattleUSA98104
| | - Ian Schiller
- McGill University Health Centre ‐ Research InstituteDivision of Clinical EpidemiologyMontrealCanada
| | - Nandini Dendukuri
- McGill University Health Centre ‐ Research InstituteDivision of Clinical EpidemiologyMontrealCanada
| | | | | | - Eleanor A Ochodo
- Stellenbosch UniversityCentre for Evidence‐based Health Care, Faculty of Medicine and Health SciencesPO Box 241Cape TownSouth Africa8000
| | - Madhukar Pai
- McGill UniversityDepartment of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational HealthMontrealCanada
| | - Karen R Steingart
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical MedicineHonorary Research FellowPembroke PlaceLiverpoolUK
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Huerga H, Mathabire Rucker SC, Cossa L, Bastard M, Amoros I, Manhiça I, Mbendera K, Telnov A, Szumilin E, Sanchez-Padilla E, Molfino L. Diagnostic value of the urine lipoarabinomannan assay in HIV-positive, ambulatory patients with CD4 below 200 cells/μl in 2 low-resource settings: A prospective observational study. PLoS Med 2019; 16:e1002792. [PMID: 31039161 PMCID: PMC6490904 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Current guidelines recommend the use of the lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay (LAM) in HIV-positive, ambulatory patients with signs and symptoms of tuberculosis (TB) only if they are seriously ill or have CD4 count ≤ 100 cells/μl. We assessed the diagnostic yield of including LAM in TB diagnostic algorithms in HIV-positive, ambulatory patients with CD4 < 200 cells/μl, as well as the risk of mortality in LAM-positive patients who were not diagnosed using other diagnostic tools and not treated for TB. METHODS AND FINDINGS We conducted a prospective observational study including HIV-positive adult patients with signs and symptoms of TB and CD4 < 200 cells/μl attending 6 health facilities in Malawi and Mozambique. Patients were included consecutively from 18 September 2015 to 27 October 2016 in Malawi and from 3 December 2014 to 22 August 2016 in Mozambique. All patients had a clinical exam and LAM, chest X-ray, sputum microscopy, and Xpert MTB/RIF assay (Xpert) requested. Culture in sputum was done for a subset of patients. The diagnostic yield was defined as the proportion of patients with a positive assay result among those with laboratory-confirmed TB. For the 456 patients included in the study, the median age was 36 years (IQR 31-43) and the median CD4 count was 50 cells/μl (IQR 21-108). Forty-five percent (205/456) of the patients had laboratory-confirmed TB. The diagnostic yields of LAM, microscopy, and Xpert were 82.4% (169/205), 33.7% (69/205), and 40.0% (84/205), respectively. In total, 50.2% (103/205) of the patients with laboratory-confirmed TB were diagnosed only through LAM. Overall, the use of LAM in diagnostic algorithms increased the yield of algorithms with microscopy and with Xpert by 38.0% (78/205) and 34.6% (71/205), respectively, and, specifically among patients with CD4 100-199 cells/μl, by 27.5% (14/51) and 29.4% (15/51), respectively. LAM-positive patients not diagnosed through other tools and not treated for TB had a significantly higher risk of mortality than LAM-positive patients who received treatment (adjusted risk ratio 2.57, 95% CI 1.27-5.19, p = 0.009). Although the TB diagnostic conditions in the study sites were similar to those in other resource-limited settings, the added value of LAM may depend on the availability of microscopy or Xpert results. CONCLUSIONS LAM has diagnostic value for identifying TB in HIV-positive patients with signs and symptoms of TB and advanced immunodeficiency, including those with a CD4 count of 100-199 cells/μl. In this study, the use of LAM enabled the diagnosis of TB in half of the patients with confirmed TB disease; without LAM, these patients would have been missed. The rapid identification and treatment of TB enabled by LAM may decrease overall mortality risk for these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Loide Cossa
- Médecins Sans Frontières, Maputo, Mozambique
| | | | | | | | | | - Alex Telnov
- Médecins Sans Frontières, Geneva, Switzerland
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Songkhla MN, Tantipong H, Tongsai S, Angkasekwinai N. Lateral Flow Urine Lipoarabinomannan Assay for Diagnosis of Active Tuberculosis in Adults With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: A Prospective Cohort Study. Open Forum Infect Dis 2019; 6:ofz132. [PMID: 31024973 PMCID: PMC6475588 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofz132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Detection of mycobacterial lipoarabinomannan antigen in urine has emerged as a potential point-of-care test for diagnosis of tuberculosis. This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of the lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan (LF-LAM) assay for diagnosis of active tuberculosis among Thai adults with advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Methods HIV-infected adult patients with CD4 cell counts ≤200/μL and symptoms suggestive of active tuberculosis were prospectively recruited from both inpatient and outpatient settings at Siriraj Hospital and Chonburi Hospital in Thailand during the study period from December 2015 to March 2017. Freshly collected urine samples were applied to the Alere Determine TB LAM Ag test strip using a grade 1 cutoff, according to the manufacturer’s grading system. The diagnostic accuracy of the LF-LAM test was assessed against a microbiological reference standard (definite tuberculosis) or a composite reference standard (definite and probable tuberculosis). Results Of the 280 patients who were included, 72 (25.7%) had definite and 65 (23.2%) had probable tuberculosis. Among patients with definite tuberculosis, the LF-LAM test yielded a sensitivity of 75.0% and a specificity of 76.0%. It had the highest sensitivity (90.5%) in HIV-infected patients with CD4 cell counts <50/μL. It yielded a lower sensitivity (61.3%) but a higher specificity (86.0%) when compared with the composite reference standard. Among the 20 patients (14%) with false-positive results, strong band intensity was observed mostly in Mycobacterium avium complex infections. An incremental sensitivity of 11% was observed with use of acid-fast bacilli sputum smear or LF-LAM testing, compared with LF-LAM testing alone. Conclusions The LF-LAM test performed well in the diagnosis of active tuberculosis in selected patients with more advanced tuberculosis and coexisting HIV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sasima Tongsai
- Division of Clinical Epidemiology, Department of Research and Development, Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Nasikarn Angkasekwinai
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Myint NPST, Aung NM, Win MS, Htut TY, Ralph AP, Cooper DA, Nyein ML, Kyi MM, Hanson J. The clinical characteristics of adults with rheumatic heart disease in Yangon, Myanmar: An observational study. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0192880. [PMID: 29466408 PMCID: PMC5821331 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is a major cause of premature death in low and middle-income countries. The greatest barrier to RHD control is neglect of the disease in national health policies and a lack of prevalence data that might inform control efforts. Myanmar is making remarkable progress against many infectious diseases, but there are almost no data to define the clinical burden of RHD in the country. This prospective audit was performed in an adult medical ward of a tertiary-referral hospital in Yangon, to gain an insight into the prevalence of RHD in Myanmar. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS All patients admitted to the ward between May 1, 2016 and April 30, 2017 were eligible for enrolment. RHD was confirmed in 96 patients who were admitted on 134 occasions, representing 1.1% of the 12,172 adult medical admissions during the study period. This compared with 410 (3.4%) admissions with HIV and 14 (0.1%) with malaria. Patients with RHD had a median age of 44 years (interquartile range: 35-59); 70 (73%) were female. Only one patient had ever had surgery despite 79 (82%) meeting criteria for intervention; 54 (56%) patients were not receiving any regular clinician review. Prior to hospitalisation only 18 (19%) patients were receiving regular penicillin. Only 8 (19%) of the 42 women <50 years were using contraception. Of 49 patients who had been hospitalised previously, 22 (45%) were receiving no regular therapy. During the study three (3.1%) patients died, and 28 (29%) were lost to follow-up. Of the 65 (68%) alive and retained in care, 21 (32%) were still experiencing moderate-severe RHD-related symptoms at the study's end. CONCLUSIONS There is a significant and unmet clinical burden of RHD in Myanmar. A national RHD programme would improve patient care, reducing morbidity and mortality from this preventable disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Phyu Sin Toe Myint
- Department of Medicine, Insein General Hospital, Yangon, Myanmar
- University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Ne Myo Aung
- Department of Medicine, Insein General Hospital, Yangon, Myanmar
- University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Myint Soe Win
- Department of Cardiology, North Okkalapa General Hospital, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Thu Ya Htut
- Department of Medicine, Insein General Hospital, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Anna P. Ralph
- Global and Tropical Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia
| | - David A. Cooper
- Director’s Unit, Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Myo Lwin Nyein
- University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Myanmar
- Department of Cardiology, North Okkalapa General Hospital, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mar Mar Kyi
- Department of Medicine, Insein General Hospital, Yangon, Myanmar
- University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Josh Hanson
- University of Medicine 2, Yangon, Myanmar
- Global and Tropical Health Division, Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia
- Director’s Unit, Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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