Urinary proteome of dogs with kidney injury during babesiosis

Characterization and LC-MS/MS based proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles separated from blood serum of healthy and dogs naturally infected by Babesia canis. A preliminary study

Canine babesiosis is a rapidly spreading tick-borne disease in Europe, which entails protozoan parasites invading red blood cells. Small extracellular vesicles (EVs) (< 200 nm) were isolated from the serum of 15 healthy and 15 by Babesia canis naturally infected dogs aimed to distinguish EV characteristics and protein profiles. There were no significant differences (P = 0.05) observed in the mean sizes and concentrations of serum EVs between the healthy and canine babesiosis groups. Despite a higher number of Canis lupus proteins detected in EVs from serum of diseased dogs, there were no statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) in the number of protein IDs between the experimental groups. We successfully identified 211 Canis lupus proteins across both experimental groups, of which 147 Canis lupus proteins were validated as being EV-associated. This data set is accessible via the ProteomeXchange PXD047647. EVs isolated from serum of B. canis infected dogs were Cd9+, Cd63+, Cd81+, and Cd82+. Furthermore, 73 Canis lupus proteins were validated as EV-associated and specific for EVs isolated from serum of B. canis-infected dogs. These were predominantly membrane and cytosolic proteins, and innate and adaptive immune system-related proteins, especially those involved in adhesion and proteoglycan mechanisms like integrins. Enrichment was also observed for proteins involved in vascular and cellular responses, including signalling pathways such as VEGF, VEGFR, and the LKB1 network. When only blood-related sites of EV expression were evaluated, the origins of EV proteins were mostly cells of immune system. These were dendritic cells, neutrophils, B cells, monocytes and platelets. In general, proteins were enriched in pathways that collectively regulate various cellular processes, including immune responses, communication, signal transduction, membrane trafficking, and apoptosis. Serum EVs and their protein cargo may have an important role in both the invasion of B. canis and the host's response to the parasitic infection, nevertheless, additional experimental research is warranted. The overall count of identified EV proteins of parasitic origin, meeting cut off criteria of two peptides and 1 % FDR, was relatively low.

Characterization of the plasma proteome from healthy adult dogs

Introduction

Bloodwork is a widely used diagnostic tool in veterinary medicine, as diagnosis and therapeutic interventions often rely on blood biomarkers. However, biomarkers available in veterinary medicine often lack sensitivity or specificity. Mass spectrometry-based proteomics technology has been extensively used in the analysis of biological fluids. It offers excellent potential for a more comprehensive characterization of the plasma proteome in veterinary medicine.

Methods

In this study, we aimed to identify and quantify plasma proteins in a cohort of healthy dogs and compare two techniques for depleting high-abundance plasma proteins to enable the detection of lower-abundance proteins via label-free quantification liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. We utilized surplus lithium-heparin plasma from 30 healthy dogs, subdivided into five groups of pooled plasma from 6 randomly selected individuals each. Firstly, we used a commercial kit to deplete high-abundance plasma proteins. Secondly, we employed an in-house method to remove albumin using Blue-Sepharose.

Results and discussion

Among all the samples, some of the most abundant proteins identified were apolipoprotein A and B, albumin, alpha-2-macroglobulin, fibrinogen beta chain, fibronectin, complement C3, serotransferrin, and coagulation factor V. However, neither of the depletion techniques achieved significant depletion of highly abundant proteins. Despite this limitation, we could detect and quantify many clinically relevant proteins. Determining the healthy canine proteome is a crucial first step in establishing a reference proteome for canine plasma. After enrichment, this reference proteome can later be utilized to identify protein markers associated with different diseases, thereby contributing to the diagnosis and prognosis of various pathologies.

Urinary Proteins of Female Domestic Dog (Canis familiaris) during Ovarian Cycle

The presence and identity of non-volatile chemical signals remain elusive in canines. In this study, we aim to evaluate the urinary proteins of female domestic dogs in the estrus and anestrus phases to evidence the presence of non-volatile chemical signals and to elucidate their identities. We collected urine samples from eight female dogs in the estrus and anestrus phases. A total of 240 proteins were identified in the urine samples using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS analysis). The comparison of the proteins revealed a significant difference between the estrus and anestrus urine. We identified proteins belonging to the lipocalin family of canines (beta-lactoglobulin-1 and beta-lactoglobulin-2, P33685 and P33686, respectively), one of whose function was the transport of pheromones and which was present only in the estrus urine samples. Moreover, proteins such as Clusterin (CLU), Liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide 2 (LEAP2), and Proenkephalin (PENK) were more abundant in the estrus urine when compared to the anestrus urine. LEAP2 was recently described as a ghrelin receptor antagonist and implicated in regulating food intake and body weight in humans and mice. Proenkephalin, a polypeptide hormone cleaved into opioid peptides, was also recognized as a candidate to determine kidney function. As of yet, none of these have played a role in chemical communication. Clusterin, an extracellular chaperone protecting from protein aggregation implicated in stress-induced cell apoptosis, is a plausible candidate in chemical communication, which is a claim that needs to be ascertained further. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with the identifier PXD040418.

Serum and urine profiling by high-throughput TMT-based proteomics for the investigation of renal dysfunction in canine babesiosis

Canine babesiosis is a tick-borne disease caused by Babesia canis, with acute kidney injury as one of the common complications. In the study 8 healthy control dogs and 22 dogs with naturally occurring babesiosis were enrolled, with the aim to analyse differences in serum and urinary proteomes between healthy dogs and dogs with different degree of renal dysfunction in babesiosis using a label-based high-throughput quantitative proteomic approach. In serum, 58 proteins were found differentially abundant between healthy controls and groups of dogs with different degrees of renal dysfunction in babesiosis, while in urine there were 259 differentially abundant proteins. In addition, altered biological pathways were detected in the diseased dogs using bioinformatics tools and validation of several candidate biomarkers was performed. SIGNIFICANCE: The main aim of this comprehensive study was to perform analyses of serum and urinary proteomes of dogs with renal dysfunction in babesiosis compared to healthy dogs using, for the first time, a high-throughput proteomic method and functional enrichment analyses. Serum and urine samples of the same dogs were investigated in order to gain a more complete picture of pathologic changes taking place in renal dysfunction in babesiosis. We highlighted two putative biomarkers validated herein which could be of importance for early diagnosis of renal dysfunction in canine babesiosis, as they are easily accessible from urine and their concentration rises before the appearance of azotaemia: urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) and urinary liver-type fatty acid-binding protein (L-FABP).

DIA mass spectrometry characterizes urinary proteomics in neonatal and adult donkeys

Health monitoring is critical for newborn animals due to their vulnerability to diseases. Urine can be not only a useful and non-invasive tool (free-catch samples) to reflect the physiological status of animals but also to help monitor the progression of diseases. Proteomics involves the study of the whole complement of proteins and peptides, including structure, quantities, functions, variations and interactions. In this study, urinary proteomics of neonatal donkeys were characterized and compared to the profiles of adult donkeys to provide a reference database for healthy neonatal donkeys. The urine samples were collected from male neonatal donkeys on their sixth to tenth days of life (group N) and male adult donkeys aging 4-6 years old (group A). Library-free data-independent acquisition (direct DIA) mass spectrometry-based proteomics were applied to analyze the urinary protein profiles. Total 2179 urinary proteins were identified, and 411 proteins were differentially expressed (P < 0.05) between the two groups. 104 proteins were exclusively expressed in group N including alpha fetoprotein (AFP), peptidase-mitochondrial processing data unit (PMPCB), and upper zone of growth plate and cartilage matrix associated (UCMA), which might be used to monitor the health status of neonatal donkeys. In functional analysis, some differentially expressed proteins were identified related to immune system pathways, which might provide more insight in the immature immunity of neonatal donkeys. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time to report donkey urinary proteome and our results might provide reference for urinary biomarker discovery used to monitor and evaluate health status of neonatal donkeys.

A Pilot Study on the Urine Proteome of Cats Fed a High-Protein Complete Diet, Supplemented with or without Arginine, Ornithine or Zeolite

Proteome analyses can be used to detect biomarkers for the healthy and diseased organism. However, data in cats are scarce, and no information is available on the potential impact of nutritional interventions on the feline urine proteome. In the present study, a label-free shotgun proteomics approach was performed to investigate the urinary proteins of four healthy adult cats. Each animal received a high-protein complete diet without (w/o) or with supplements that could affect the protein metabolism: arginine (+100% compared to the arginine concentration in the w/o diet), ornithine (+200% compared to the arginine concentration in the w/o diet) or zeolite (0.375 g/kg body weight/day). Our results demonstrate a huge number of proteins in the urine of cats (516 ± 49, 512 ± 39, 399 ± 149 and 455 ± 134 in the w/o, arginine, ornithine and zeolite group, respectively), which are associated with several biological processes. In addition, up- and downregulated urinary proteins could be detected in the dietary supplementation periods. Overall, the present pilot study provides basic data on the urine proteome of healthy adult cats. With increasing information, the numerousness of urinary proteins implies the potential to identify biomarkers and metabolic pathways in the feline organism.

Urinary phoretograms performed by capillary electrophoresis in dogs with chronic disease with or without Leishmania infantum infection

INTRODUCTION

The study of early markers to detect kidney malfunction has increased in recent years since serum markers, such as creatinine increase when there is a 75% loss of renal mass. Urinary capillary electrophoresis (UCE) is an available laboratory technique that provides an easily interpretable electrophoretic pattern. This pattern in our study has been divided into five fractions as it is done in serum: fraction 1 migrating in the albumin zone, fraction 2 in the alpha₁-globulins zone, fraction 3 in the alpha₂-globulins zone, fraction 4 in the beta-globulins zone, and fraction 5 in the gamma globulins zone. UCE can be useful in the early diagnosis of renal disease.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this study, UCE was performed in dogs with azotemia and proteinuria due to chronic kidney disease (CKD) not related to Leishmania infantum (L. infantum) infection (G₁, n = 11) and dogs with CKD related to L. infantum infection (G₂, n = 17) and compared with reference intervals from healthy dogs (G₀, n = 123), with the aim of comparing their phoretograms and assessing changes in the fractions of the phoretograms based on the health status of individuals.

RESULTS

Fraction 2 was statistically augmented in dogs with CKD (G₁) when compared with the healthy population (G₀) and dogs infected by L. infantum (G₂). Fraction 3 was statistically increased in dogs with CKD (G₁) and dogs infected by L. infantum (G₂) compared with G_0. Fraction 4 was found to be statistically decreased in dogs with CKD (G₁) and dogs infected by L. infantum (G₂) compared with G_0. Fraction 5 was statistically higher in dogs with L. infantum (G₂) compared with G₀ and dogs with CKD (G₁). No statistical relationship was found between the protein to creatinine ratio and different fractions from the urinary phoretogram in the study population. No statistical relationship was found between serum and urine fractions in the study population.

DISCUSSION

The results of the present study suggest that UCE is a promising non-invasive technique that might be used as a part of the diagnostic and follow-up in dogs with kidney disease due to different pathologies.

Proteomic Analysis of Tear Film in Canine Diabetic Patients with And Without Retinopathy

Introduction

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of blindness in human and animal patients. Early detection and treatment of the disease are important and can be facilitated by proteomic approaches providing biomarkers.

Material and Methods

Tear films were collected on Schirmer strips from 32 canine patients (12 diabetic dogs without changes in the retina, 8 diabetic dogs with signs of DR, and 12 control dogs). Two-dimensional electrophoresis was used to separate tear film proteins prior to their identification with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-tandem time-of-flight mass spectrometry and interrogation of protein function databases to find matches.

Results

Five significantly differentially expressed proteins were identified; of those, one was downregulated (2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthase 3) and four were upregulated in the tear film of two diabetic groups (Ras-related protein RAB-13; aldo-keto-reductase family 1 member C3; 28S ribosomal protein S31, mitochondrial; and 60S ribosomal protein L5). The differentially expressed proteins identified in the tear film were involved in signalling pathways associated with impaired protein clearance, persistent inflammation and oxidative stress.

Conclusion

The results of our study confirm that the pathological process in the retina in the course of diabetes mellitus causes changes in the tear film proteome.

Urinary proteome of dogs with renal disease secondary to leishmaniosis

Canine leishmaniosis is frequently associated with the development of renal disease. Its pathogenesis is complex and not fully understood. For this reason, this study aimed to describe the urinary proteome, and identify possible new biomarkers in dogs with kidney disease secondary to leishmaniosis. Urine samples were collected from 20 dogs, 5 from healthy dogs, and 15 from stages Leishvet III and IV. Urine samples were analyzed by UHPLC-MS/MS. The data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD029165. A total of 951 proteins were obtained. After bioinformatic analysis, 93 urinary proteins were altered in the study group. Enrichment analysis performed on these proteins showed an overrepresentation of the complement activation pathway, among others. Finally, 12 discriminant variables were found in dogs with renal disease secondary to leishmaniosis, highlighting C4a anaphylatoxin, apolipoprotein A-I, haptoglobin, leucine-rich alpha-2-glycoprotein 1, and beta-2-microglobulin. This study is the first to describe the urinary proteomics of dogs with renal disease caused by leishmaniosis, and it provides new possible biomarkers for the diagnosis and monitoring of this disease.

Urinary Proteome Differences in Canine Diabetes with and without the Presence of Microalbuminuria

Simple Summary

Canine diabetes is a serious disease, which can lead to numerous complications. There are limited data on urine proteomics in dogs, and none of the effect of diabetes mellitus on the urine proteome. In this study we aimed to analyze the protein composition of the urine collected from the healthy animals and compare it with two diabetic groups (normoalbuminuric and microalbuminuric). There are significant differences between these three groups, and we believe that the identified proteins hold promise as a potential diagnostic tool, which can be later on used in clinical practice, and for better understanding of the disease.

Abstract

In this study we aimed to analyze the protein composition of the urine collected from the healthy animals and compare it to the two diabetic groups (DM I normoalbuminuric diabetic dogs; DM II diabetic dogs with microalbuminuria). We tried to identify potential urinary proteins which could be up- or downregulated in diabetic patients even before the appearance of microalbuminuria. Methods: After obtaining urine, we performed two-dimensional electrophoresis, followed by Delta2D software analysis, which allowed for selection and identification with MALDI-TOF spectrometry, statistically significant differentially expressed proteins. Our study revealed 286 common protein spots on 2D gels from the diabetic and control group. From these proteins five were positively identified by MALDI-TOF MS. To further evaluate the five differentiating proteins, the Panther program was used to assign them to appropriate biological process. Conclusion: Significant number of identified proteins play a role in intracellular signaling—vesicle formation, bonding, transport through membranes. This may suggest that first signs of kidney diabetic cellular impairment may be seen in the urine composition before any clinical signs occur.

Association between Increased the De Ritis Quotient and Renal Azotaemia in Canine Babesiosis

Simple Summary

This study investigated the association between increased serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity and renal indices such as renal failure index, sodium fractional excretion, and urinary creatinine to serum creatinine ratio in dogs with renal azotaemia infected with Babesia canis. This research revealed that increased serum AST activity in azotaemic dogs may be of renal origin, and the de Ritis quotient may be a convenient and useful tool in the recognition of renal azotaemia in canine babesiosis.

Abstract

Previous studies of azotaemia in canine babesiosis revealed pre-renal and renal azotaemia in infected dogs, and an association between an increased de Ritis quotient (aspartate aminotransferase to alanine aminotransferase activity; AST/ALT ratio) and azotaemia in affected animals. Serum activities of AST and ALT, and AST/ALT ratio were compared between azotaemic and non-azotaemic dogs infected with Babesia canis, and between affected dogs with pre-renal and renal azotaemia. Statistical analyses revealed higher AST activity and an increased AST/ALT ratio in azotaemic dogs, and an increase of these two parameters in infected dogs with renal azotaemia in comparison to dogs with pre-renal azotaemia. Moreover, AST activity and AST/ALT ratio were correlated with renal indices such as renal failure index, sodium fractional excretion, and urinary creatinine to serum creatinine ratio. The study also revealed a lack of correlation between AST and ALT activities in azotaemic dogs, although a correlation was observed when including all dogs in this study (azotaemic and non-azotaemic dogs treated as one group). The results of this study indicate that increased serum AST activity in azotaemic dogs infected with B. canis may have a renal origin, and the AST/ALT ratio could be considered as a simple and convenient renal index that is useful in the recognition of renal azotaemia in canine babesiosis.

Proteomics in dogs: a systematic review

Proteomic analysis is having a rapid development as a method for the detection of biomarkers of diseases in dogs. Dogs in addition to their importance as companion animals, serve as important animal models for research. This study aims to systematically review evidence regarding the studies performed in proteomics in dogs, and specifically those made in serum, saliva, urine and/or plasma. Information searched in October 2020, January 2021 and August 2021, for English language publications of the last decade (2010-2020) were obtained from electronic databases. Screening, data extraction and risk of bias assessment were undertaken by two investigators. The risk of bias was evaluated using the Review Manager (RevMan 5) tool. Meta-analysis and case report studies were not included in this review. Through the screening process a total of 557 publications were identified after the removal of duplicates. Out of these, 65 were fully evaluated and 44 of these were included in the review. Most studies evaluated the proteome of disease and compared it with a healthy population, and most of the articles included were made on serum, followed by saliva. The overall risk of bias for all studies was high, due to an absence in the generation of random sequence. Overall proteomic analysis has allowed the discovery of new physiopathological pathways of diseases and potential biomarkers in the dog, which are addressed in this review.

Combined Untargeted and Targeted Metabolomics Approaches Reveal Urinary Changes of Amino Acids and Energy Metabolism in Canine Babesiosis With Different Levels of Kidney Function

Canine babesiosis is a tick-borne disease with a worldwide distribution, caused by the haemoprotozoan parasites of the genus Babesia. One of the most prevalent complication is acute kidney injury, and an early diagnosis of altered kidney function remains a challenge for veterinary practice. The aim of this study was to assess the urine metabolic profile from dogs with babesiosis and different degree of kidney function using untargeted and targeted MS-based metabolomics approaches. In this study, 22 dogs naturally infected with Babesia canis and 12 healthy dogs were included. Untargeted metabolomics approach identified 601 features with a differential abundance between the healthy group and groups of dogs with babesiosis and different level of kidney function, with 27 of them identified as a match to known standards; while targeted approach identified 17 metabolites with significantly different concentrations between the groups. A pattern of significantly altered metabolites referring to the inflammatory host response, oxidative stress, and energy metabolism modulation in babesiosis was presented. Our findings have demonstrated that kidney dysfunction accompanying canine babesiosis was associated with changes in amino acid metabolism, energy metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, and biochemical pathways such as urea cycle and ammonia detoxication. These findings will enable the inclusion of urinary markers for the detection and monitoring of renal damage in babesiosis, as well as in other similar diseases.

Early disease biomarkers can be found using animal models urine proteomics

INTRODUCTION

Early disease detection is a prerequisite for early intervention. Urine is not subjected to homeostatic control, and therefore, it accumulates very early changes associated with disease processes, some of which may be used as biomarkers. Animal models must be used to identify urinary changes associated with very early stages of diseases to avoid potential interfering factors and obtain urine samples at a sufficiently early time point before pathological or clinical manifestations occur.

AREAS COVERED

We reviewed recent (from 2009-2020) urine proteome studies using animal models of many diseases. We focused on early changes in urine proteome of animal models, particularly changes occurring prior to alterations in blood tests, light microscopy observations and clinical manifestations. Additional studies relevant to the topic were also extracted from the references of the cited papers. Changes in the urine proteome at different disease stages and the ability of the urine proteome to differentiate among different animal models are also discussed in this review.

EXPERT COMMENTARY

Urine proteomes of animal models may reflect early changes that occur even before changes in blood parameters, light microscopy observations and clinical manifestations, suggesting the potential use of urinary biomarkers for the very early detection of human diseases.

MONITORING OF THE ASSOCIATED COURSE OF LEPTOSPIROSIS AND BABESIOSIS IN DOGS OF THE SUMY REGION OF UKRAINE

Leptospirosis and babesiosis in dogs may be associated. These diseases often have similar symptoms and mask each other, or are asymptomatic, which complicates the diagnosis, significantly worsens the prognosis and reduces the survival of sick animals. Monitoring of the associated course of leptospirosis and babesiosis in dogs makes it possible to study the frequency of this parasitocenosis in dogs and the peculiarities of its course, which is the basis for improving the diagnosis and treatment of sick animals. The aim of the research. Monitor the associated course of leptospirosis and babesiosis in dogs. Methods. The research was conducted in the private veterinary clinic “Vetservice” in Sumy and in the serology department of the Sumy Regional State Laboratory of the Civil Service of Ukraine for Food Safety and Consumer Protection. Blood samples were taken from dogs came for treatment to the “Vetservice” clinic. The diagnosis of babesiosis was established directly in the clinic by the results of erythrocyte microscopy in thin smears of peripheral blood of sick dogs stained by Giemsa. The diagnosis of leptospirosis was established in the serology department of the Sumy Regional State Laboratory based on the results of a study of the serum of sick dogs in the microagglutination reaction. The subjects of the study were clinically ill and suspected dogs with the associated course of leptospirosis and babesiosis, as well as blood samples from these animals. Babesium trophozoites were detected in erythrocytes under an immersion microscope, a magnification of ocular 10 x 90, and the presence of antibodies to leptospira was detected by the presence of agglutination of leptospira in microagglutination reaction. Results. In the study of the incidence of dogs associated with leptospirosis and babesiosis during 2014–2019, according to the clinic “Vetservice” found that the number of reported cases of associated leptospirosis and babesiosis annually varies from 9 to 28 cases. This parasitocenosis is registered all year round with peaks in spring and autumn, moderately in summer and rarely in winter. Purebred animals get sick several times more often than non pedigree ones. During the period from 2016 to 2019, the number of diseases in females and males was approximately the same. During the period from 2014 to 2015, males were more often ill. Conclusions. The prevalence of the associated course of leptospirosis and babesiosis in dogs of the Sumy region of Ukraine was determined with the determination of seasonal, breed and sexual dynamics of this parasitocenosis

Urinary Proteome of Newborn Calves-New Potential in Non-Invasive Neonatal Diagnostic

Simple Summary

Urine is an underappreciated biological sample in the context of health monitoring of newborn calves. It can be collected noninvasively and used for diagnostic purposes, which is an attractive option in veterinary examination. The establishment of urinary protein maps of healthy newborn calves is important for diagnosing and monitoring the progression of various diseases. The aim of this study was to characterize the urinary proteome profile of healthy newborn calves. We applied 2-D gel electrophoresis combined with MALDI-TOF-TOF-MS/MS and 1-D gel electrophoresis coupled with LC-MS-MS analysis to separate and identify proteins present in the urine of newborn calves. Urinary proteomic analysis allowed us to detect proteins which are characteristic of embryonic and neonatal development and proteins involved in the cardiovascular and digestive system, and bone and kidney development. Moreover, we identified proteins that can be used to assess normal glomerular and tubular physiology. In calves, one of the main causes of mortality in the neonatal period is diarrhea, affecting fluid and electrolyte balance. We also identified proteins involved in the renal transport of water and electrolytes, which can be useful in the early diagnosis and prevention of these type of disorders.

Abstract

Urine is a biological diagnostic material suitable not only for the analysis of kidney and urinary tract functions but also the function of other tissues and organs. The urine proteome of adult mammals differs from the urine proteome of neonatal ones. The establishment of urinary protein maps of healthy newborn calves is important for diagnosing and monitoring the progression of various diseases. The experiment was carried out on a Polish-Friesian var. of Black-and-White male calves in the sixth day of postnatal life. The two proteomics approaches used for separation and identification of urinary proteins were: 2-DE with MALDI-TOF-TOF-MS/MS and 1-DE with LC-MS/MS. This resulted in the identification of 692 urinary proteins. The majority of them were classified as extracellular proteins (40.32%), as well as proteins involved in regulation of major cellular processes (31.07%). We have observed the presence of unique proteins associated with embryonic (ameloblastin, alpha-fetoprotein, Delta-like protein, embryo-specific fibronectin 1 transcript variant, Indian hedgehog homolog) and kidney development (angiotensin-converting enzyme, angiotensinogen, aquaporin-1, calbindin, glypican 3, nidogen 1, pro-cathepsin H). Additionally, proteins involved in the renal regulation of water and electrolyte balance (angiotensinogen, angiotensin-converting enzyme, aquaporin-1, ezrin, uromodulin) were detected. Presented in the current study 1-D and 2-D urinary proteomic maps are the basis for the identification and detection of prognostic biomarkers important for defining a calf’s health status.

In slow pace towards the proteome of equine body fluids

Equine medicine represents a relevant field of veterinary science and the horse industry generates a significant economic impact. Horses can be involved in different sport disciplines, meat production, work and recreational purposes. Horses are also important for human health as they can be used as animal models for studying human diseases and in equine-assisted therapy. This review summarizes the data related to body fluids such as plasma/serum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, saliva, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and peritoneal fluid obtained using proteomic analysis. Horse body fluid proteome analysis under various physiological and pathological conditions is a useful method for identifying new biomarkers for horse diseases which are still difficult to diagnose, but with serious consequences on equine health and welfare. The findings reported here reveal that further proteomic studies on equine body fluids collected from diseased animals are required. SIGNIFICANCE: Body fluids are sources of potential protein biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic target identification. Indeed, they contain proteins that play a crucial role in cell functions and whose presence or relative abundance are indicative of the health status of tissues/organs. The review reports the data on the equine body fluids obtained using proteomic analysis, including those which are commonly used to obtain a correct diagnosis and prognosis of horse diseases which still pose a significant challenge. For equine medicine, new biomarkers are needed to formulate early diagnosis and to distinguish among diseases with similar clinical signs.