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Sharma R, Diwan B. Lipids and the hallmarks of ageing: From pathology to interventions. Mech Ageing Dev 2023; 215:111858. [PMID: 37652278 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2023.111858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Lipids are critical structural and functional architects of cellular homeostasis. Change in systemic lipid profile is a clinical indicator of underlying metabolic pathologies, and emerging evidence is now defining novel roles of lipids in modulating organismal ageing. Characteristic alterations in lipid metabolism correlate with age, and impaired systemic lipid profile can also accelerate the development of ageing phenotype. The present work provides a comprehensive review of the extent of lipids as regulators of the modern hallmarks of ageing viz., cellular senescence, chronic inflammation, gut dysbiosis, telomere attrition, genome instability, proteostasis and autophagy, epigenetic alterations, and stem cells dysfunctions. Current evidence on the modulation of each of these hallmarks has been discussed with emphasis on inherent age-dependent deficiencies in lipid metabolism as well as exogenous lipid changes. There appears to be sufficient evidence to consider impaired lipid metabolism as key driver of the ageing process although much of knowledge is yet fragmented. Considering dietary lipids, the type and quantity of lipids in the diet is a significant, but often overlooked determinant that governs the effects of lipids on ageing. Further research using integrative approaches amidst the known aging hallmarks is highly desirable for understanding the therapeutics of lipids associated with ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Sharma
- Nutrigerontology Laboratory, Faculty of Applied Sciences & Biotechnology, Shoolini University, Solan 173229, India.
| | - Bhawna Diwan
- Nutrigerontology Laboratory, Faculty of Applied Sciences & Biotechnology, Shoolini University, Solan 173229, India
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2
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Nihad M, Sen U, Chaudhury D, Das UN, Shenoy P S, Bose B. Arachidonic acid modulates the cellular energetics of human pluripotent stem cells and protects the embryoid bodies from embryotoxicity effects in vitro. Reprod Toxicol 2023; 120:108438. [PMID: 37454977 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2023.108438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Arachidonic acid (AA), an ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid involved in signalling pathways that drive cell fate decisions, has an enhancing role in the immunomodulatory effect on mesenchymal stem cells and the vasculogenesis of embryonic stem cells. 3D embryoid bodies (EBs) from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) have been used as in vitro models for embryotoxicity for various compounds/drugs. Valproic acid (VA), a common anti-epileptic drug, is known to be embryotoxic and cause malformations in embryos. As early embryogenesis depends on AA, we investigated the embryo protective effects of AA against the embryotoxic drug VA in this study. The effects of AA on the proliferation and cell cycle parameters of PSCs were studied. In particular, the potential of AA to abrogate VA-induced embryotoxicity in vitro was evaluated using ROS detection and antioxidant assays. In response to AA, we observed modulation in cell proliferation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and pluripotent NTERA-2 embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells. The present study substantiates the cytoprotective effects of AA against VA. These results imply that AA plays a critical role in the proliferation and differentiation of iPSCs and EC cells and protects the EBs from cytotoxic damage, thereby ensuring normal embryogenesis. Thus, the bioactive lipid AA may be explored for supplementation to benefit pregnant women treated with long-term anti-epileptic drugs to prevent in-utero fetal growth malformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Nihad
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya Deemed to be University, Mangalore 575018, Karnataka, India
| | - Utsav Sen
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1425 Madison Avenue, 15th Floor, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Debajit Chaudhury
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya Deemed to be University, Mangalore 575018, Karnataka, India
| | - Undurti N Das
- BioScience Research Centre, Department of Medicine, GVP Medical College and Hospital, Visakhapatnam 530048, India; UND Life Sciences, 2221 NW 5th St., Battle Ground, WA 98604, USA
| | - Sudheer Shenoy P
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya Deemed to be University, Mangalore 575018, Karnataka, India
| | - Bipasha Bose
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya Deemed to be University, Mangalore 575018, Karnataka, India.
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Röszer T. Metabolic impact of adipose tissue macrophages in the early postnatal life. J Leukoc Biol 2022; 112:1515-1524. [PMID: 35899927 PMCID: PMC9796690 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.3mr0722-201r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) play key roles in metabolic inflammation, insulin resistance, adipose tissue fibrosis, and immune disorders associated with obesity. Research on ATM biology has mostly been conducted in the setting of adult obesity, since adipocyte hypertrophy is associated with a significant increase in ATM number. Signals that control ATM activation toward a proinflammatory or a proresolving phenotype also determine the developmental program and lipid metabolism of adipocytes after birth. ATMs are present at birth and actively participate in the synthesis of mediators, which induce lipolysis, mitobiogenesis, and mitochondrial uncoupling in adipocytes. ATMs in the newborn and the infant promote a lipolytic and fatty acid oxidizing adipocyte phenotype, which is essential to support the lipid-fueled metabolism, to maintain nonshivering thermogenesis and counteract an excessive adipose tissue expansion. Since adipose tissue metabolism in the early postnatal life determines obesity status in adulthood, early-life ATM functions may have a life-long impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Röszer
- Division of Pediatric Obesity, Children's Hospital and Institute of PediatricsUniversity of DebrecenDebrecenHungary,Institute of NeurobiologyUlm UniversityUlmGermany
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The Essential Role of FoxO1 in the Regulation of Macrophage Function. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:1068962. [PMID: 35993049 PMCID: PMC9388302 DOI: 10.1155/2022/1068962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are widely distributed in various tissues and organs. They not only participate in the regulation of innate and adaptive immune response, but also play an important role in tissue homeostasis. Dysregulation of macrophage function is closely related to the initiation, development and prognosis of multiple diseases, including infection and tumorigenesis. Forkhead box transcription factor O1 (FoxO1) is an important member among the forkhead box transcription factor family. Through directly binding to the promoter regions of downstream target genes, FoxO1 is implicated in cell proliferation, apoptosis, metabolic activities and other biological processes. In this review, we summarized the regulatory role of FoxO1 in macrophage phagocytosis, migration, differentiation and inflammatory activation. We also emphasized that macrophage reciprocally modulated FoxO1 activity via a post-translational modification (PTM) dominant manner.
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Mattavelli E, Catapano AL, Baragetti A. Molecular Immune-Inflammatory Connections between Dietary Fats and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: Which Translation into Clinics? Nutrients 2021; 13:3768. [PMID: 34836026 PMCID: PMC8625932 DOI: 10.3390/nu13113768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Current guidelines recommend reducing the daily intake of dietary fats for the prevention of ischemic cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Avoiding saturated fats while increasing the intake of mono- or polyunsaturated fatty acids has been for long time the cornerstone of dietary approaches in cardiovascular prevention, mainly due to the metabolic effects of these molecules. However, recently, this approach has been critically revised. The experimental evidence, in fact, supports the concept that the pro- or anti-inflammatory potential of different dietary fats contributes to atherogenic or anti-atherogenic cellular and molecular processes beyond (or in addition to) their metabolic effects. All these aspects are hardly translatable into clinics when trying to find connections between the pro-/anti-inflammatory potential of dietary lipids and their effects on CVD outcomes. Interventional trials, although providing stronger potential for causal inference, are typically small sample-sized, and they have short follow-up, noncompliance, and high attrition rates. Besides, observational studies are confounded by a number of variables and the quantification of dietary intakes is far from optimal. A better understanding of the anatomic and physiological barriers for the absorption and the players involved in the metabolism of dietary lipids (e.g., gut microbiota) might be an alternative strategy in the attempt to provide a first step towards a personalized dietary approach in CVD prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Mattavelli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.M.); (A.L.C.)
- S.I.S.A. Centre for the Study of Atherosclerosis, Bassini Hospital, Cinisello Balsamo, Cinisello Balsamo, 20092 Milan, Italy
| | - Alberico Luigi Catapano
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.M.); (A.L.C.)
- IRCCS Multimedica Hospital, Sesto San Giovanni, 20092 Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Baragetti
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.M.); (A.L.C.)
- IRCCS Multimedica Hospital, Sesto San Giovanni, 20092 Milan, Italy
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Vu SH, Bernardo Reyes AW, Ngoc Huy TX, Min W, Lee HJ, Kim HJ, Lee JH, Kim S. Transcriptomic profiling of phospholipase A2 and the role of arachidonic acid during Brucella abortus 544 infection in both in vitro and in vivo systems. Microb Pathog 2020; 152:104655. [PMID: 33264666 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
To date, the antimicrobial activity of arachidonic acid (AA) with regard to pathogenesis of Brucella in macrophages is unknown. We found that AA is highly toxic to B. abortus in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Transcription profiling of different groups of phospholipases A2 (PLA2) was examined, ten PLA2 were detected including cPLA2-IV-A, cPLA2-IV-B, iPLA2-VI, sPLA2-I-B, sPLA2-II-C, sPLA2-II-D, sPLA2-II-E, sPLA2-V, sPLA2-X, sPLA2-XII-A. Phagocytic signaling investigation indicated that AA treatment attenuated p38α activity in infected culture macrophages possibly leading to inhibition of Brucella internalization. Post-treatment with the fatty acid did not influence bacterial intracellular multiplication or alter production of antimicrobial effectors like ROS and NO in RAW 264.7 cells. On the other hand, AA administration significantly reduced bacterial load and modestly inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion including TNF, IFN-γ and IL-6 in mice plasma. To our knowledge, we are the first to suggest that B. abortus invasion to RAW 264.7 macrophages is impaired by AA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Son Hai Vu
- Institute of Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Republic of Korea; Institute of Applied Sciences, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology - HUTECH, 475A Dien Bien Phu St., Ward 25, Binh Thanh District, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, Republic of Korea
| | | | - Tran Xuan Ngoc Huy
- Institute of Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Republic of Korea
| | - Wongi Min
- Institute of Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Republic of Korea
| | - Hu Jang Lee
- Institute of Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jin Kim
- Institute of Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Republic of Korea
| | - John Hwa Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonbuk National University, Iksan, 54596, Republic of Korea
| | - Suk Kim
- Institute of Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, Republic of Korea.
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Caballero-Solares A, Xue X, Cleveland BM, Foroutani MB, Parrish CC, Taylor RG, Rise ML. Diet-Induced Physiological Responses in the Liver of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Inferred Using Multiplex PCR Platforms. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2020; 22:511-525. [PMID: 32495111 PMCID: PMC8346449 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-020-09972-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The simultaneous quantification of several transcripts via multiplex PCR can accelerate research in fish physiological responses to diet and enable the development of superior aquafeeds for farmed fish. We designed two multiplex PCR panels that included assays for 40 biomarker genes representing key aspects of fish physiology (growth, metabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation) and 3 normalizer genes. We used both panels to assess the physiological effects of replacing fish meal and fish oil by terrestrial alternatives on Atlantic salmon smolts. In a 14-week trial, we tested three diets based on marine ingredients (MAR), animal by-products and vegetable oil (ABP), and plant protein and vegetable oil (VEG). Dietary treatments affected the expression of genes involved in hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism (e.g., srebp1, elovl2), cell redox status (e.g., txna, prdx1b), and inflammation (e.g., pgds, 5loxa). At the multivariate level, gene expression profiles were more divergent between fish fed the marine and terrestrial diets (MAR vs. ABP/VEG) than between the two terrestrial diets (ABP vs. VEG). Liver ARA was inversely related to glucose metabolism (gck)- and growth (igfbp-5b1, htra1b)-related biomarkers and hepatosomatic index. Liver DHA and EPA levels correlated negatively with elovl2, whereas ARA levels correlated positively with fadsd5. Lower hepatic EPA/ARA in ABP-fed fish correlated with the increased expression of biomarkers related to mitochondrial function (fabp3a), oxidative stress (txna, prdx1b), and inflammation (pgds, 5loxa). The analysis of hepatic biomarker gene expression via multiplex PCR revealed potential physiological impacts and nutrient-gene interactions in Atlantic salmon fed lower levels of marine-sourced nutrients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Caballero-Solares
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 0 Marine Lab Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada.
| | - Xi Xue
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 0 Marine Lab Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Beth M Cleveland
- National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture, ARS/USDA, 11861 Leetown Rd, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA
| | - Maryam Beheshti Foroutani
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 0 Marine Lab Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Christopher C Parrish
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 0 Marine Lab Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | | | - Matthew L Rise
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 0 Marine Lab Road, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
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Dahik VD, Frisdal E, Le Goff W. Rewiring of Lipid Metabolism in Adipose Tissue Macrophages in Obesity: Impact on Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21155505. [PMID: 32752107 PMCID: PMC7432680 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21155505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity and its two major comorbidities, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, represent worldwide health issues whose incidence is predicted to steadily rise in the coming years. Obesity is characterized by an accumulation of fat in metabolic tissues resulting in chronic inflammation. It is now largely accepted that adipose tissue inflammation underlies the etiology of these disorders. Adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) represent the most enriched immune fraction in hypertrophic, chronically inflamed adipose tissue, and these cells play a key role in diet-induced type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. ATMs are triggered by the continuous influx of dietary lipids, among other stimuli; however, how these lipids metabolically activate ATM depends on their nature, composition and localization. This review will discuss the fate and molecular programs elicited within obese ATMs by both exogenous and endogenous lipids, as they mediate the inflammatory response and promote or hamper the development of obesity-associated insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.
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Fournier N, Benoist JF, Allaoui F, Nowak M, Dakroub H, Vedie B, Paul JL. Contrasting effects of membrane enrichment with polyunsaturated fatty acids on phospholipid composition and cholesterol efflux from cholesterol-loaded J774 mouse or primary human macrophages. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2019; 1865:158536. [PMID: 31672574 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.158536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A high consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly n-3 PUFAs, is atheroprotective. PUFAs incorporation into membrane phospholipids alters the functionality of membrane proteins. We studied the consequences of the in vitro supplementation of several PUFAs on the FA profiles and on ABCA1-dependent cholesterol efflux capacities from cholesterol-loaded macrophages. Arachidonic acid (AA, C20:4 n-6) and, to a lesser extent, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 n-3), dose-dependently impaired cholesterol efflux from cholesterol-loaded J774 mouse macrophages without alterations in ABCA1 expression, whereas docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 n-3) had no impact. AA cells exhibited higher proportions of arachidonic acid and adrenic acid (C22:4 n-6), its elongation product. EPA cells exhibited slightly higher proportions of EPA associated with much higher proportions of docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5 n-3), its elongation product and with lower proportions of AA. Conversely, both EPA and DHA and, to a lesser extent, AA decreased cholesterol efflux from cholesterol-loaded primary human macrophages (HMDM). The differences observed in FA profiles after PUFA supplementations were different from those observed for the J774 cells. In conclusion, we are the first to report that AA and EPA, but not DHA, have deleterious effects on the cardioprotective ABCA1 cholesterol efflux pathway from J774 foam cells. Moreover, the membrane incorporation of PUFAs does not have the same impact on cholesterol efflux from murine (J774) or human (HMDM) cholesterol-loaded macrophages. This finding emphasizes the key role of the cellular model in cholesterol efflux studies and may partly explain the heterogeneous literature data on the impact of PUFAs on cholesterol efflux.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Fournier
- Lip(Sys)(2) - EA 7357, Athérosclérose: homéostasie et trafic du cholestérol des macrophages, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, UFR de Pharmacie, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France; Laboratoire de Biochimie, AP-HP (Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris), Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, 75015 Paris, France.
| | - Jean-François Benoist
- Lip(Sys)(2) - EA 7357, Athérosclérose: homéostasie et trafic du cholestérol des macrophages, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, UFR de Pharmacie, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France; Laboratoire de Biochimie hormonale, AP-HP (Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris), Hôpital Robert Debré, 75019 Paris, France
| | - Fatima Allaoui
- Lip(Sys)(2) - EA 7357, Athérosclérose: homéostasie et trafic du cholestérol des macrophages, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, UFR de Pharmacie, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Maxime Nowak
- Lip(Sys)(2) - EA 7357, Athérosclérose: homéostasie et trafic du cholestérol des macrophages, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, UFR de Pharmacie, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Hani Dakroub
- Lip(Sys)(2) - EA 7357, Athérosclérose: homéostasie et trafic du cholestérol des macrophages, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, UFR de Pharmacie, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Benoît Vedie
- Laboratoire de Biochimie, AP-HP (Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris), Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Jean-Louis Paul
- Lip(Sys)(2) - EA 7357, Athérosclérose: homéostasie et trafic du cholestérol des macrophages, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, UFR de Pharmacie, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France; Laboratoire de Biochimie, AP-HP (Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris), Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, 75015 Paris, France
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Röszer T. Understanding the Biology of Self-Renewing Macrophages. Cells 2018; 7:cells7080103. [PMID: 30096862 PMCID: PMC6115929 DOI: 10.3390/cells7080103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages reside in specific territories in organs, where they contribute to the development, homeostasis, and repair of tissues. Recent work has shown that the size of tissue macrophage populations has an impact on tissue functions and is determined by the balance between replenishment and elimination. Macrophage replenishment is mainly due to self-renewal of macrophages, with a secondary contribution from blood monocytes. Self-renewal is a recently discovered trait of macrophages, which can have a major impact on their physiological functions and hence on the wellbeing of the organism. In this review, I discuss our current understanding of the developmental origin of self-renewing macrophages and the mechanisms used to maintain a physiologically stable macrophage pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Röszer
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
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