Are income-related differences in active travel associated with physical environmental characteristics? A multi-level ecological approach

The impact of street greenery on active travel: a narrative systematic review

Background

Street greenery may have a profound effect on residents' active travel (AT), a mode of transportation involving walking and cycling. This study systematically reviewed the scientific evidence on the effects of street greenery on active travel.

Methods

A comprehensive search was performed using keywords and references in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane Library. The review included studies that met the following criteria: (1) Study design: experimental studies, cross sectional studies, (2) Participants: individuals of all ages, (3) Exposure variables: street greenery, including street vegetation (e.g., trees, shrubs, and lawns), (4) Outcomes: active travel behaviors (walking, cycling), (5) Article type: peer-reviewed articles, (6) Search time window: from the inception of relevant electronic literature database until 21 June 2023, (7) Geographic scope: worldwide; (8) Language: articles in English.

Results

Twenty-six cross-sectional studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed. These studies employed objective metrics for assessing street greenery and varied methodologies to measure AT, including 14 using subjective measurements (like self-reported surveys), 10 using objective data (such as mobile app analytics), and two studies combined both approaches. This review identifies a generally positive impact of street greenery on active travel in various aspects. However, the extent of this influence varies with factors such as temporal factors (weekdays vs. weekends), demographic segments (age and gender), proximity parameters (buffer distances), and green space quantification techniques. Street greenness promotes active travel by enhancing environmental esthetics, safety, and comfort, while also improving air quality, reducing noise, and fostering social interactions. In addition, the study suggests that variables like weather, seasonality, and cultural context may also correlate with the effectiveness of street greenery in encouraging active travel.

Conclusion

Street greenery positively influences active travel, contributing to public health and environmental sustainability. However, the findings also indicate the need for more granular, experimental, and longitudinal studies to better understand this relationship and the underlying mechanisms. These insights are pivotal for urban planners and policymakers in optimizing green infrastructure to promote active transportation, taking into account local demographics, socio-economic factors, and urban design.

Which physical and social characteristics of Brazilian cities contribute to physical activity of adolescents?

This study aimed to analyze the association between adolescents' physical activity and the Brazilian capitals' built and social environment. The units of analysis of this ecological study were the 26 capitals and the Federal District, with data from the National Adolescent Health Survey (2012). The outcome variable was the reported regular physical activity (PA) of ninth graders in Brazilian schools. Exposure variables included characteristics of the natural environment, socioeconomic and educational indicators, urban infrastructure, urban violence, and sociocultural factors retrieved from several secondary sources of Brazilian databases. We adopted multiple linear regression to verify the association between PA and exposure variables. The percentage of active adolescents was 33.0% (95%CI: 32.1; 33.9). In the final model, higher PA was associated with lower temperature, higher Primary Education Development Index, the higher percentage of ramps for wheelchair users, and a higher percentage of leisure-time active adults. The data show that climatic and educational factors, the infrastructure, and the social environment of the capitals can contribute to Brazilian adolescents complying with the recommended weekly PA levels.

Walking Behavior in Temuco, Chile: The Contribution of Built Environment and Socio-Demographic Factors

The increase in active travel contributes to maintaining the minimum rate of physical activity and therefore has a positive impact on inhabitants’ public health. The level of walking for daily transport has decreased significantly during the last decades in Temuco, Chile. This study examined the contribution of socio-demographic factors, active family environment, and built environment factors to walking behavior and walking level based on three types of destination in Temuco. The results of Encuesta Origin Destino (EOD 2013), geographic information system (GIS), and, finally, hierarchical multiple regression analysis were used to examine the objectives. Correlations were found between total walking behavior, walking level based on three destination types, and several socio-demographic factors such as age, gender, and access to TV and Internet. Furthermore, correlations were found between walking behavior and active family environment, as well as several built environment factors. For instance, the higher mixed land use as well as number of parks and plazas contribute towards more overall walking as well as two types of walking. Identifying that most persons who walk come from low-income families and the negative impact of network connectivity on overall walking are the major differences between this context and developed countries.

The Contribution of Socio-Demographic Factors to Walking Behavior Considering Destination Types; Case Study: Temuco, Chile

The improvement of walking contributes to maintain the minimum rate of physical activity and therefore the residents’ public health. This is while the amount of walking in daily transport of inhabitants has significantly decreased during the last decades in Temuco, Chile. In addition, the impact of socio-demographic as well as social factors on the improvement of walking behavior has been paid less attention in previous studies. This study aims to examine the contribution of socio-demographic factors and the active family environment to walking behavior as well as walking level based on three types of destinations in Temuco. The results of “Encuesta Origin Destino” (EOD) in Temuco were used to examine the objectives. It was found that a high percentage of people who walk in Temuco belong to low-income families. Moreover, most of the people who walk, do not have a driver’s license nor private cars in their household. Certain socio-demographic factors such as age, gender, driver’s license, private cars, and access to TV were found to have associations with overall walking behavior as well as walking level depending on three different destination types. Furthermore, the correlation was found between walking behavior and active family environment. These findings were discussed and their implications were addressed as well.

Identifying the Group Differences in the Impact of Haze on Residents' Low-Carbon Travel

This paper matches the large-scale survey data and the corresponding historical weather data to explore how air pollution impacts on low-carbon travel choices. The K-means algorithm is employed to cluster the personal characteristics of residents into five groups according to their travel behavior. The authors take ordered Logit models to identify the group differences in the impact of haze on the five types of low-carbon travel choices, combining with the theory of responsibility attribution and protection motivation theory. The results show that haze has a significant impact on the two groups, namely young office workers and students. The other three groups will not consider the influence of haze when choosing travel vehicles, travel distance, and travel time. The quantity of personally owned automobiles also has a significant impact on the group differences in low carbon travel choices. It is indicated that low carbon travel policies should be considered in the group differences in the future, and efforts should be made from supply and demand sides to guide residents to choose low-carbon travel.

Sociodemographic inequities and active transportation in adults from Latin America: an eight-country observational study

Background

Active transportation is a crucial sort of physical activity for developing sustainable environments and provides essential health benefits. This is particularly important in Latin American countries because they present the highest burden of non-communicable diseases relative to other worldwide regions. This study aimed to examine the patterns of active transportation and its association with sociodemographic inequities in Latin American countries.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted in eight countries. Participants (n = 8547, 18–65 years) self-reported their active transportation (walking, cycling, and total) using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Sex, age, ethnicity, socioeconomic level, education level, public and private transport use, and transport mode were used as sociodemographic inequities.

Results

Participants spent a total of 19.9, 3.1, and 23.3 min/day with walking, cycling, and total active transportation, respectively. Mixed and other ethnicity (Asian, Indigenous, Gypsy, and other), high socioeconomic level as well as middle and high education level presented higher walking than Caucasian, low socioeconomic and education level. Private transport mode and use of ≥ 6 days/week of private transport showed lower walking than public transport mode and ≤ 2 days/week of private transport. Use of ≥ 3 days/week of public transport use presented higher walking than ≤ 2 days/week of public transport. Men had higher cycling for active transportation than women. Use of ≥ 3 days/week of public transport use presented higher cycling than ≤ 2 days/week of public transport. ≥6 days/week showed lower cycling than ≤ 2 days/week of private transport use. Men (b: 5.57: 95 %CI: 3.89;7.26), black (3.77: 0.23;7.31), mixed (3.20: 1.39;5.00) and other ethnicity (7.30: 2.55;12.04), had higher total active transportation than women and Caucasian. Private transport mode (-7.03: -11.65;-2.41) and ≥ 6 days/week of private transport use (-4.80: -6.91;-0.31) showed lower total active transportation than public transport mode and ≤ 2 days/week of private transport use. Use of 3–5 (5.10: 1.35;8.85) and ≥ 6 days/week (8.90: 3.07;14.73) of public transport use presented higher total active transportation than ≤ 2 days/week of public transport use. Differences among countries were observed.

Conclusions

Sociodemographic inequities are associated differently with active transportation across Latin American countries. Interventions and policies that target the promotion of active policies transportation essential to consider sociodemographic inequities.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.Gov NCT02226627. Retrospectively registered on August 27, 2014.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12939-021-01524-0.

Walking toward Metro Stations: the Contribution of Distance, Attitudes, and Perceived Built Environment

Walking as an active means of travel is important as a sustainable mode of transport. Moreover, the level of walking in the surrounding areas of metro stations would contribute to maintaining the minimum rate of physical activity and, therefore, inhabitants’ general health. This study examined the impacts of walking attitude, walking distance, and perceived built environment on walking behavior for reaching the metro stations in Shiraz, Iran. Three metro stations were selected and a quantitative approach was used to examine the objectives. It was found that the average walking distance is less than the average in developed countries, such as the United States. People walked more when there was a shorter distance between their starting points and the metro stations. The contribution of walking attitudes and several built environment attributes to walking behavior was demonstrated. Finding the contribution of aesthetic attributes, such as accessibility to parks and housing types of the starting points of the walking trips, to walking for transport are taken into account as the novelties of this study. Policy makers of this city may apply the findings of this study—especially around the metro stations—to improve the average walking distance as well as walking behavior.

Association of the built environments and health-related quality of life in community-dwelling older adults: a cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

The relationship between built environments and the quality of life (QoL) of the elderly has gained great attention in recent years. However, most QoL studies have been conducted in western countries; thus, limited research was found in Asia, in which the population density, urban forms, narrow roadways, and land use patterns are more compact and highly mixed in terms of use. Therefore, the purpose of this study was an interdisciplinary analysis of two national datasets, the National Land Use Investigation and the National Health Interview Survey, to explore the relationship between built environments and the health-related quality of life of older adults in Taiwan.

METHODS

Eight types of built environments at the township level were calculated, and 1222 nationally representative older adults aged 65 and older were recruited. The outcome variable was health-related QoL as measured using the EQ-5D, including utility score and the EQ-VAS. Statistical methods included descriptive analysis, bivariate analysis, and mixed-effects logistic regression analysis, which were conducted using SAS 9.4 software.

RESULTS

The results showed that a significant relationship exists between cultural and historical facilities and low EQ-VAS; none of the built environments were found to be related to the EQ-5D. Individual factors are the main determinants of the EQ-5D of older adults in Taiwan. Positive relationships were found if older adults were engaging in physical activities and social participation.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest that building a supportive environment in which elderly people could consistently engage in physical activities and social participation is another potential approach that might contribute to active aging.

The Relationship between Urbanization, the Built Environment, and Physical Activity among Older Adults in Taiwan

Urbanization and ageing are global phenomena and offer unique challenges in different countries. A supportive environment plays a critical role in addressing the issue of behavioral change and health promotion among older adults. Many studies in the U.S., EU, and Australia have considered promoting physical activity in the community based on ecological models, whereas very few Asian studies have examined the relationships among urbanization, the built environment and physical activity in elderly at the ecological level, especially from a multi-level perspective. Due to the prevalence of post-war baby boomers and a very low birth-rate, the older population (aged 65 years old and older) in Taiwan has increased rapidly since 2011 and has exceeded the younger generation (0⁻14 years old) in 2017. Hence, the purpose of this study was first to examine the degree of urbanization in townships and the status of related built environments in Taiwan and then to investigate whether the built environment is associated with recommended amounts of physical activity among older adults. Three national datasets and a multi-level design were used in this research. Data at the individual level was obtained from the 2009 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) which was taken from June 2009 to February 2010. Ecological data was obtained from the 2006 National Land Use Investigation of the National Geographic Information System and the 2010 Population and Housing Census. The analyses included a descriptive analysis, a bivariate analysis, a multiple logistic regression, and a multi-level analysis, utilizing a mostly hierarchical linear model (HLM). The results showed a significant relationship between factors at the environmental levels and physical activity in older adults. Urbanization, the built environment, and the median income of townships were positively correlated to the physical activity of the older adults. After controlling for individual-level factors, urbanization still exhibited this correlation. Parks and green spaces were associated with achieving the recommended amount of physical activity. However, there was no relationship after controlling for factors at the individual level. Detailed discussions were provided.

Population levels of, and inequalities in, active travel: A national, cross-sectional study of adults in Scotland

This study aimed to describe active travel (walking or cycling) in Scotland and explore potential demographic, geographic, and socio-economic inequalities in active travel. We extracted data for the period 2012-13 (39,585 journey stages) from the Scottish Household Survey. Survey travel diaries recorded all journeys made on the previous day by sampled individuals aged 16 + living within Scotland, and the stages within each journey. Descriptive statistics were calculated for journey stages, mode, purpose and distance. Logistic regression models were fitted to examine the relationship between the likelihood of a journey stage being active, age, sex, area deprivation and urban/rural classification. A quarter of all journey stages were walked or cycled (26%, n: 10,280/39,585); 96% of these were walked. Those living in the least deprived areas travelled a greater average distance per active journey stage than those in the most deprived. The likelihood of an active journey stage was higher for those living in the most deprived areas than for those in the least deprived (Odds Ratio (OR) 1.21, 95% CI 1.04-1.41) and for those in younger compared to older age groups (OR 0.44, 95% CI 0.34-0.58). In conclusion, socio-economic inequalities in active travel were identified, but - contrary to the trends for many health-beneficial behaviours - with a greater likelihood of active travel in more deprived areas. This indicates a potential contribution to protecting and improving health for those whose health status tends to be worse. Walking was the most common mode of active travel, and should be promoted as much as cycling.

Neighborhood educational disparities in active commuting among women: the effect of distance between the place of residence and the place of work/study (an ACTI-Cités study)

Background

Active transportation has been associated with favorable health outcomes. Previous research highlighted the influence of neighborhood educational level on active transportation. However, little is known regarding the effect of commuting distance on social disparities in active commuting. In this regard, women have been poorly studied. The objective of this paper was to evaluate the relationship between neighborhood educational level and active commuting, and to assess whether the commuting distance modifies this relationship in adult women.

Methods

This cross-sectional study is based on a subsample of women from the Nutrinet-Santé web-cohort (N = 1169). Binomial, log-binomial and negative binomial regressions were used to assess the associations between neighborhood education level and (i) the likelihood of reporting any active commuting time, and (ii) the share of commuting time made by active transportation modes. Potential effect measure modification of distance to work on the previous associations was assessed both on the additive and the multiplicative scales.

Results

Neighborhood education level was positively associated with the probability of reporting any active commuting time (relative risk = 1.774; p < 0.05) and the share of commuting time spent active (relative risk = 1.423; p < 0.05). The impact of neighborhood education was greater at long distances to work for both outcomes.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that neighborhood educational disparities in active commuting tend to increase with commuting distance among women. Further research is needed to provide geographically driven guidance for health promotion intervention aiming at reducing disparities in active transportation among socioeconomic groups.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4464-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Health impacts of the M74 urban motorway extension: a mixed-method natural experimental study

Background

Making travel easier can improve people’s access to opportunities, but motor transport also incurs substantial undesirable health and social impacts.

Aims

To assess how a new urban motorway affected travel and activity patterns, road accidents and well-being in local communities, and how these impacts were experienced and brought about.

Design

The Traffic and Health in Glasgow study, a mixed-method controlled before-and-after study.

Setting

Glasgow, UK.

Participants

Repeat cross-sectional survey samples of 1345 and 1343 adults, recruited in 2005 and 2013, respectively. Of these, 365 formed a longitudinal cohort, 196 took part in a quantitative substudy using accelerometers and global positioning system receivers and 30, living within 400 m of the new motorway, took part in a qualitative substudy along with 12 other informants. Complementary analyses used police STATS19 road traffic accident data (1997–2014) and Scottish Household Survey travel diaries (2009–13).

Intervention

A new 5-mile, six-lane section of the M74 motorway, opened in 2011 and running through predominantly deprived neighbourhoods in south-east Glasgow, with associated changes to the urban landscape.

Main outcome measures

Differences in self-reported travel behaviour (1-day travel record), physical activity (short International Physical Activity Questionnaire) and well-being [Short Form 8 Health Survey (SF-8) and a short version of the Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale], and in the incidence of road traffic accidents.

Methods

A combination of multivariable cohort, cross-sectional, repeat cross-sectional and interrupted time series regression analyses comparing residents of the ‘M74 corridor’ intervention area and two matched control areas, complemented by novel qualitative spatial methods. Graded measures of the proximity of the motorway to each participant’s home served as a further basis for controlled comparisons.

Results

Both benefits and harms were identified. Cohort participants living closer to the new motorway experienced significantly reduced mental well-being (mental component summary of the SF-8 scale) over time compared with those living further away [linear regression coefficient –3.6, 95% confidence interval (CI) –6.6 to –0.7]. In the area surrounding an existing motorway, this association was concentrated among those with chronic conditions. In repeat cross-sectional analyses, participants living closer to a new motorway junction were more likely to report using a car at follow-up than those living further away (odds ratio 3.4, 95% CI 1.1 to 10.7). We found weaker quantitative evidence of a decline in physical activity participation and no quantitative evidence of an overall change in either active travel or accidents associated with motorway exposure. Qualitative evidence suggested that, although the new motorway improved connectivity for those with dispersed social networks and access to motor vehicles, the impacts were more complex for others, some of whom found the motorway to be a cause of severance. Changes in community composition and cohesion, and perceptions of personal safety, were widely perceived as more important to local people.

Limitations

A key limitation of natural experimental studies is that the risk of residual confounding cannot be eliminated.

Conclusions

Overall, these findings highlight the potential for urban infrastructural projects of this kind to add further burdens to already disadvantaged communities, exacerbating inequalities and contributing to poorer health outcomes. The health and social impacts of such initiatives should be more fully taken into account in planning and research.

Funding

The National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.

The role of the built environment in explaining educational inequalities in walking and cycling among adults in the Netherlands

BACKGROUND

This study examined whether characteristics of the residential built environment (i.e. population density, level of mixed land use, connectivity, accessibility of facilities, accessibility of green) contributed to educational inequalities in walking and cycling among adults.

METHODS

Data from participants (32-82 years) of the 2011 survey of the Dutch population-based GLOBE study were used (N = 2375). Highest attained educational level (independent variable) and walking for transport, cycling for transport, walking in leisure time and cycling in leisure time (dependent variables) were self-reported in the survey. GIS-systems were used to obtain spatial data on residential built environment characteristics. A four-step mediation-based analysis with log-linear regression models was used to examine to contribution of the residential built environment to educational inequalities in walking and cycling.

RESULTS

As compared to the lowest educational group, the highest educational group was more likely to cycle for transport (RR 1.13, 95% CI 1.04-1.23), walk in leisure time (RR 1.12, 95% CI 1.04-1.21), and cycle in leisure time (RR 1.12, 95% CI 1.03-1.22). Objective built environment characteristics were related to these outcomes, but contributed minimally to educational inequalities in walking and cycling. On the other hand, compared to the lowest educational group, the highest educational group was less likely to walk for transport (RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.82-1.01), which could partly be attributed to differences in the built environment.

CONCLUSION

This study found that objective built environment characteristics contributed minimally to educational inequalities in walking and cycling in the Netherlands.

Pedestrian-oriented zoning is associated with reduced income and poverty disparities in adult active travel to work, United States

Active travel to work can provide additional minutes of daily physical activity. While the literature points to the relationship between zoning, equity and socioeconomic status, and physical activity, no study has quantitatively explored these connections. This study examined whether zoning may help to moderate any income and poverty inequities in active travel and taking public transit to work. Research was conducted between May 2012 and June 2015. Zoning data were compiled for 3914 jurisdictions covering 45.45% of the U.S. population located in 471 of the most populous U.S. counties and 2 consolidated cities located in 48 states and the District of Columbia. (Sensitivity analyses also captured unincorporated areas which, with the municipalities, collectively covered ~72% of the U.S.

POPULATION

) Zoning codes were obtained and evaluated to assess the pedestrian-orientation of the zoning codes. Public transit use, active travel to work, median household income, and poverty data were obtained for all study jurisdictions from the 2010-2014 American Community Survey estimates. Associations were examined through multivariate regression models, controlling for community sociodemographics, clustered on county, with robust standard errors. We found that certain pedestrian-oriented zoning provisions (e.g., crosswalks, bike-pedestrian connectivity, street connectivity, bike lanes, bike parking, and more zoning provisions) were associated with reduced income and/or poverty disparities in rates of public transit use and active travel to work. Findings from this study can help to inform cross-sectoral collaborations between the public health, planning, and transportation fields regarding zoning for pedestrian-orientation and active travel.

Effects of new motorway infrastructure on active travel in the local population: a retrospective repeat cross-sectional study in Glasgow, Scotland

Background

Promoting active travel is an important part of increasing population physical activity, which has both physical and mental health benefits. A key benefit described by the then Scottish Government of the five-mile M74 motorway extension, which opened during June 2011 in the south of Glasgow, was that the forecast reduction in motor traffic on local streets would make these streets safer for walking and cycling, thus increasing active travel by the local population. The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of new motorway infrastructure on the proportion of journey stages made actively (cycling or on foot) by individuals travelling in and out of the local area.

Methods

Data for the periods 2009–10 and 2012–13 were extracted from the Scottish Household Survey (SHS) travel diaries, which record each journey stage made during the previous day by a representative sample of the Scottish population aged 16 and over. Each individual journey stage was assigned to one of the following study areas surrounding existing and new transport infrastructure: (1) an area surrounding the new M74 motorway extension (n = 435 (2009–10), 543 (2012–13)), (2) a comparator area surrounding an existing motorway (n = 477 (2009–10), 560 (2012–13)), and (3) a control area containing no comparable motorway infrastructure (n = 541 (2009–10), 593 (2012–13)). Multivariable, multi-level regression analysis was performed to determine any between-area differences in change in active travel over time, which might indicate an intervention effect. Reference populations were defined using two alternative definitions, (1) Glasgow City and (2) Glasgow and surrounding local authorities.

Results

The results showed an increase in the proportion of journey stages using active travel in all study areas compared to both reference populations. However, there were no significant between-area differences to suggest an effect attributable the M74 motorway extension.

Conclusions

There was no clear evidence that the M74 motorway extension either increased or decreased active travel in the local area. The anticipation by policy makers that reduced motorised traffic on local streets might increase journeys walked or cycled appears to have been unfounded.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12966-016-0403-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.