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Zhou Z, Xu J, Liu S, Lv Y, Zhang R, Zhou X, Zhang Y, Weng S, Xu H, Ba Y, Zuo A, Han X, Liu Z. Infiltrating treg reprogramming in the tumor immune microenvironment and its optimization for immunotherapy. Biomark Res 2024; 12:97. [PMID: 39227959 PMCID: PMC11373505 DOI: 10.1186/s40364-024-00630-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 09/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy has shown promising anti-tumor effects across various tumors, yet it encounters challenges from the inhibitory tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). Infiltrating regulatory T cells (Tregs) are important contributors to immunosuppressive TIME, limiting tumor immunosurveillance and blocking effective anti-tumor immune responses. Although depletion or inhibition of systemic Tregs enhances the anti-tumor immunity, autoimmune sequelae have diminished expectations for the approach. Herein, we summarize emerging strategies, specifically targeting tumor-infiltrating (TI)-Tregs, that elevate the capacity of organisms to resist tumors by reprogramming their phenotype. The regulatory mechanisms of Treg reprogramming are also discussed as well as how this knowledge could be utilized to develop novel and effective cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaokai Zhou
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Jiaxin Xu
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, China
| | - Shutong Liu
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Yingying Lv
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Ruiqi Zhang
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Xing Zhou
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Yuyuan Zhang
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Siyuan Weng
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Hui Xu
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Yuhao Ba
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Anning Zuo
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Xinwei Han
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
- Interventional Institute of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
- Interventional Treatment and Clinical Research Center of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
| | - Zaoqu Liu
- Department of Interventional Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
- Interventional Institute of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
- Interventional Treatment and Clinical Research Center of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China.
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Contreras-Castillo E, García-Rasilla VY, García-Patiño MG, Licona-Limón P. Stability and plasticity of regulatory T cells in health and disease. J Leukoc Biol 2024; 116:33-53. [PMID: 38428948 DOI: 10.1093/jleuko/qiae049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms that negatively regulate inflammation upon a pathogenic stimulus are crucial for the maintenance of tissue integrity and organ function. T regulatory cells are one of the main drivers in controlling inflammation. The ability of T regulatory cells to adapt to different inflammatory cues and suppress inflammation is one of the relevant features of T regulatory cells. During this process, T regulatory cells express different transcription factors associated with their counterparts, Th helper cells, including Tbx21, GATA-3, Bcl6, and Rorc. The acquisition of this transcription factor helps the T regulatory cells to suppress and migrate to the different inflamed tissues. Additionally, the T regulatory cells have different mechanisms that preserve stability while acquiring a particular T regulatory cell subtype. This review focuses on describing T regulatory cell subtypes and the mechanisms that maintain their identity in health and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenio Contreras-Castillo
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito exterior s/n, CU Coyoacán, México City 04510, Mexico
| | - Verónica Yutsil García-Rasilla
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito exterior s/n, CU Coyoacán, México City 04510, Mexico
| | - María Guadalupe García-Patiño
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito exterior s/n, CU Coyoacán, México City 04510, Mexico
| | - Paula Licona-Limón
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito exterior s/n, CU Coyoacán, México City 04510, Mexico
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Aliyu M, Zohora FT, Ceylan A, Hossain F, Yazdani R, Azizi G. Immunopathogenesis of multiple sclerosis: molecular and cellular mechanisms and new immunotherapeutic approaches. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2024; 46:355-377. [PMID: 38634438 DOI: 10.1080/08923973.2024.2330642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a central nervous system (CNS) demyelinating autoimmune disease with increasing global prevalence. It predominantly affects females, especially those of European descent. The interplay between environmental factors and genetic predisposition plays a crucial role in MS etiopathogenesis. METHODS We searched recent relevant literature on reputable databases, which include, PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and ScienceDirect using the following keywords: multiple sclerosis, pathogenesis, autoimmunity, demyelination, therapy, and immunotherapy. RESULTS Various animal models have been employed to investigate the MS etiopathogenesis and therapeutics. Autoreactive T cells within the CNS recruit myeloid cells through chemokine expression, leading to the secretion of inflammatory cytokines driving the MS pathogenesis, resulting in demyelination, gliosis, and axonal loss. Key players include T cell lymphocytes (CD4+ and CD8+), B cells, and neutrophils. Signaling dysregulation in inflammatory pathways and the immunogenetic basis of MS are essential considerations for any successful therapy to MS. Data indicates that B cells and neutrophils also have significant roles in MS, despite the common belief that T cells are essential. High neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios correlate with MS severity, indicating their contribution to disease progression. Dysregulated signaling pathways further exacerbate MS progression. CONCLUSION MS remains incurable, but disease-modifying therapies, monoclonal antibodies, and immunomodulatory drugs offer hope for patients. Research on the immunogenetics and immunoregulatory functions of gut microbiota is continuing to provide light on possible treatment avenues. Understanding the complex interplay between genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and immune dysregulation is critical for developing effective treatments for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansur Aliyu
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, International Campus, TUMS-IC, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Clinical Science, College of Health Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
| | - Fatema Tuz Zohora
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
| | - Ayca Ceylan
- Medical Faculty, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Immunology and Allergy, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Fariha Hossain
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
| | - Reza Yazdani
- Department of Neurology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Gholamreza Azizi
- Department of Neurology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
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Bai D, Kim H, Wang P. Development of semisynthetic saponin immunostimulants. Med Chem Res 2024; 33:1292-1306. [PMID: 39132259 PMCID: PMC11315725 DOI: 10.1007/s00044-024-03227-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 08/13/2024]
Abstract
Many natural saponins demonstrate immunostimulatory adjuvant activities, but they also have some inherent drawbacks that limit their clinical use. To overcome these limitations, extensive structure-activity-relationship (SAR) studies have been conducted. The SAR studies of QS-21 and related saponins reveal that their respective fatty side chains are crucial for potentiating a strong cellular immune response. Replacing the hydrolytically unstable ester side chain in the C28 oligosaccharide domain with an amide side chain in the same domain or in the C3 branched trisaccharide domain is a viable approach for generating robust semisynthetic saponin immunostimulants. Given the striking resemblance of natural momordica saponins (MS) I and II to the deacylated Quillaja Saponaria (QS) saponins (e.g., QS-17, QS-18, and QS-21), incorporating an amide side chain into the more sustainable MS, instead of deacylated QS saponins, led to the discovery of MS-derived semisynthetic immunostimulatory adjuvants VSA-1 and VSA-2. This review focuses on the authors' previous work on SAR studies of QS and MS saponins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Bai
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL AL35294 USA
| | - Hyunjung Kim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL AL35294 USA
| | - Pengfei Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL AL35294 USA
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5
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Liu R, Li Y, Wang Z, Chen P, Xie Y, Qu W, Wang M, Yu Z, Luo X. Regulatory T cells promote functional recovery after spinal cord injury by alleviating microglia inflammation via STAT3 inhibition. CNS Neurosci Ther 2023. [PMID: 36914969 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immediately after spinal trauma, immune cells, and proinflammatory cytokines infiltrate the spinal cord and disrupt the focal microenvironment, which impedes axon regeneration and functional recovery. Previous studies have reported that regulatory T cells (Tregs) enter the central nervous system and exert immunosuppressive effects on microglia during multiple sclerosis and stroke. However, whether and how Tregs interact with microglia and modulate injured microenvironments after spinal cord injury (SCI) remains unknown. METHOD Regulatory T cells spatiotemporal characteristics were analyzed in a mouse contusion SCI model. Microglia activation status was evaluated by immunostaining and RNA sequencing. Cytokine production in injured spinal cord was examined using Luminex. The role of STAT3 in Treg-microglia crosstalk was investigated in a transwell system with isolated Tregs and primary microglia. RESULTS Regulatory T cells infiltration of the spinal cord peaked on day 7 after SCI. Treg depletion promoted microglia switch to a proinflammatory phenotype. Inflammation-related genes, such as ApoD, as well as downstream cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α were upregulated in microglia in Treg-depleted mice. STAT3 inhibition was involved in Treg-microglia crosstalk, and STAT3 chemical blockade improved function recovery in Treg-depleted mice. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that Tregs promote functional recovery after SCI by alleviating microglia inflammatory reaction via STAT3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Liu
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ying Li
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ziyue Wang
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Peng Chen
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yi Xie
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Wensheng Qu
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Functional Reconstruction, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Minghuan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Functional Reconstruction, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhiyuan Yu
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Functional Reconstruction, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiang Luo
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Tongji Hospital, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Neural Injury and Functional Reconstruction, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Qi J, Liu C, Bai Z, Li X, Yao G. T follicular helper cells and T follicular regulatory cells in autoimmune diseases. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1178792. [PMID: 37187757 PMCID: PMC10175690 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1178792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are heterogeneous and mainly characterized by expressing surface markers CXCR5, ICOS, and PD-1; cytokine IL-21; and transcription factor Bcl6. They are crucial for B-cell differentiation into long-lived plasma cells and high-affinity antibody production. T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells were described to express markers of conventional T regulatory (Treg) cells and Tfh cells and were able to suppress Tfh-cell and B-cell responses. Evidence has revealed that the dysregulation of Tfh and Tfr cells is positively associated with the pathogenic processes of autoimmune diseases. Herein, we briefly introduce the phenotype, differentiation, and function of Tfh and Tfr cells, and review their potential roles in autoimmune diseases. In addition, we discuss perspectives to develop novel therapies targeting Tfh/Tfr balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Qi
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Science, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
- *Correspondence: Genhong Yao, ; Jingjing Qi,
| | - Chang Liu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Dalian Municipal Central Hospital, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Ziran Bai
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Science, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Xia Li
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Science, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Genhong Yao
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- *Correspondence: Genhong Yao, ; Jingjing Qi,
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Kim H, Bai D, Ghosh S, Franks ML, Wang X, Yan C, Liu Z, Zhang P, Michalek SM, Leavenworth JW, Wang P. Structure-Activity Relationship Study of Momordica Saponin II Derivatives as Vaccine Adjuvants. J Med Chem 2022; 65:14589-14598. [PMID: 36318612 PMCID: PMC10202417 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
VSA-2 is a recently developed semisynthetic saponin immunostimulant. It is prepared by incorporating a terminal-functionalized side chain to the branched trisaccharide domain at the C3 position of Momordica saponin II (MS II) isolated from the seeds of perennial Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng. Direct comparison of VSA-2 and the clinically proven saponin adjuvant QS-21 shows that VSA-2 is comparable to QS-21 in enhancing humoral and cellular immune responses. Structure-activity relationship studies show that structural changes in the side chain have a significant impact on saponins' adjuvant activity. However, with the VSA-2 molecular framework intact, the new VSA-2 analogues with various substitution(s) at the terminal benzyl group of the side chain retain the ability of potentiating antigen-specific humoral and cellular responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunjung Kim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Di Bai
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Sadashib Ghosh
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Michael L Franks
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Xifeng Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, 152 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430079, P. R. China
| | - Cheng Yan
- Department of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, 152 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430079, P. R. China
| | - Zheng Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, 152 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei 430079, P. R. China
| | - Ping Zhang
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Suzanne M Michalek
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Jianmei W Leavenworth
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
- The O'Neal Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
| | - Pengfei Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
- The O'Neal Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 14th Street South, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, United States
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8
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Palomares O, Elewaut D, Irving PM, Jaumont X, Tassinari P. Regulatory T cells and immunoglobulin E: A new therapeutic link for autoimmunity? Allergy 2022; 77:3293-3308. [PMID: 35852798 DOI: 10.1111/all.15449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases have a prevalence of approximately 7 to 9% and are classified as either organ-specific diseases, including type I diabetes, multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease and myasthenia gravis, or systemic diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and Sjögren's syndrome. While many advancements have been made in understanding of the mechanisms of autoimmune disease, including the nature of self-tolerance and its breakdown, there remain unmet needs in terms of effective and highly targeted treatments. T regulatory cells (Tregs) are key mediators of peripheral tolerance and are implicated in many autoimmune diseases, either as a result of reduced numbers or altered function. Tregs may be broadly divided into those generated in the thymus (tTregs) and those generated in the periphery (pTregs). Tregs target many different immune cell subsets and tissues to suppress excessive inflammation and to support tissue repair and homeostasis: there is a fine balance between Treg cell stability and the plasticity that is required to adjust Tregs' regulatory purposes to particular immune responses. The central role of immunoglobulin E (IgE) in allergic disease is well recognized, and it is becoming increasingly apparent that this immunoglobulin also has a wider role encompassing other diseases including autoimmune disease. Anti-IgE treatment restores the capacity of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) impaired by IgE- high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεR1) cross-linking to induce Tregs in vitro in atopic patients. The finding that anti-IgE therapy restores Treg cell homeostasis, and that this mechanism is associated with clinical improvement in asthma and chronic spontaneous urticaria suggests that anti-IgE therapy may also have a potential role in the treatment of autoimmune diseases in which Tregs are involved.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dirk Elewaut
- Department of Rheumatology, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent University, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Peter M Irving
- Guy's and St Thomas' Hospital Foundation Trust, London, UK
- King's College London, London, UK
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Seals MR, Moran MM, Leavenworth JD, Leavenworth JW. Contribution of Dysregulated B-Cells and IgE Antibody Responses to Multiple Sclerosis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:900117. [PMID: 35784370 PMCID: PMC9243362 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.900117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS), a debilitating autoimmune inflammatory disease that affects the brain and spinal cord, causes demyelination of neurons, axonal damage, and neurodegeneration. MS and the murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model have been viewed mainly as T-cell-mediated diseases. Emerging data have suggested the contribution of B-cells and autoantibodies to the disease progression. However, the underlying mechanisms by which dysregulated B-cells and antibody response promote MS and EAE remain largely unclear. Here, we provide an updated review of this specific subject by including B-cell biology and the role of B-cells in triggering autoimmune neuroinflammation with a focus on the regulation of antibody-producing B-cells. We will then discuss the role of a specific type of antibody, IgE, as it relates to the potential regulation of microglia and macrophage activation, autoimmunity and MS/EAE development. This knowledge can be utilized to develop new and effective therapeutic approaches to MS, which fits the scope of the Research Topic "Immune Mechanism in White Matter Lesions: Clinical and Pathophysiological Implications".
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Affiliation(s)
- Malik R. Seals
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
- Multidisciplinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Monica M. Moran
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
- Graduate Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Jonathan D. Leavenworth
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Jianmei W. Leavenworth
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
- The O’Neal Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
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10
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Gao YL, Liu YC, Zhang X, Shou ST, Chai YF. Insight Into Regulatory T Cells in Sepsis-Associated Encephalopathy. Front Neurol 2022; 13:830784. [PMID: 35370925 PMCID: PMC8965708 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.830784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is a diffuse central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction during sepsis, and is associated with increased mortality and poor outcomes in septic patients. Despite the high incidence and clinical relevance, the exact mechanisms driving SAE pathogenesis are not yet fully understood, and no specific therapeutic strategies are available. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) have a role in SAE pathogenesis, thought to be related with alleviation of sepsis-induced hyper-inflammation and immune responses, promotion of T helper (Th) 2 cells functional shift, neuroinflammation resolution, improvement of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) function, among others. Moreover, in a clinical point of view, these cells have the potential value of improving neurological and psychiatric/mental symptoms in SAE patients. This review aims to provide a general overview of SAE from its initial clinical presentation to long-term cognitive impairment and summarizes the main features of its pathogenesis. Additionally, a detailed overview on the main mechanisms by which Tregs may impact SAE pathogenesis is given. Finally, and considering that Tregs may be a novel target for immunomodulatory intervention in SAE, different therapeutic options, aiming to boost peripheral and brain infiltration of Tregs, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-lei Gao
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Yu-lei Gao
| | - Yan-cun Liu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiang Zhang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Rizhao People's Hospital of Shandong Province, Rizhao, China
| | - Song-tao Shou
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Yan-fen Chai
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- *Correspondence: Yan-fen Chai
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11
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Ghosh S, Leavenworth JW. Current Advances in Follicular Regulatory T-Cell Biology. Crit Rev Immunol 2022; 42:35-47. [PMID: 37017287 PMCID: PMC11034780 DOI: 10.1615/critrevimmunol.2022045746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Follicular regulatory T (TFR) cells are a population of CD4+ T-cells that concomitantly express markers for regulatory T-cells and follicular helper T (TFH) cells, and have been predominantly implicated in the regulation of humoral immunity via their suppressive functions. Rapid and robust progress has been made in the field of TFR cell research since the discovery of this subset over a decade ago. However, there is still a significant gap in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the phenotypic and functional heterogeneity of TFR cells under various physiologic and pathologic settings. In this review article, we aim to highlight the most up-to-date concepts and investigations in both experimental animal models and human studies to provide a perspective on our understanding of TFR biology with particular emphasis on these cells in the context of disease settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadashib Ghosh
- Department of Neurosurgery, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233 USA
| | - Jianmei W. Leavenworth
- Department of Neurosurgery, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233 USA
- Department of Microbiology, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 USA
- The O’Neal Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 USA
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Dixon ML, Luo L, Ghosh S, Grimes JM, Leavenworth JD, Leavenworth JW. Remodeling of the tumor microenvironment via disrupting Blimp1 + effector Treg activity augments response to anti-PD-1 blockade. Mol Cancer 2021; 20:150. [PMID: 34798898 PMCID: PMC8605582 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-021-01450-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accumulation of Foxp3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells in the tumor often represents an important mechanism for cancer immune evasion and a critical barrier to anti-tumor immunity and immunotherapy. Many tumor-infiltrating Treg cells display an activated phenotype and express the transcription factor Blimp1. However, the specific impact of these Blimp1+ Treg cells and their follicular regulatory T (TFR) cell subset on tumor and the underlying mechanisms of action are not yet well-explored. METHODS Various transplantable tumor models were established in immunocompetent wild-type mice and mice with a Foxp3-specific ablation of Blimp1. Tumor specimens from patients with metastatic melanoma and TCGA datasets were analyzed to support the potential role of Treg and TFR cells in tumor immunity. In vitro culture assays and in vivo adoptive transfer assays were used to understand how Treg, TFR cells and antibody responses influence tumor control. RNA sequencing and NanoString analysis were performed to reveal the transcriptome of tumor-infiltrating Treg cells and tumor cells, respectively. Finally, the therapeutic effects of anti-PD-1 treatment combined with the disruption of Blimp1+ Treg activity were evaluated. RESULTS Blimp1+ Treg and TFR cells were enriched in the tumors, and higher tumoral TFR signatures indicated increased risk of melanoma metastasis. Deletion of Blimp1 in Treg cells resulted in impaired suppressive activity and a reprogramming into effector T-cells, which were largely restricted to the tumor-infiltrating Treg population. This destabilization combined with increased anti-tumor effector cellular responses, follicular helper T-cell expansion, enhanced tumoral IgE deposition and activation of macrophages secondary to dysregulated TFR cells, remodeled the tumor microenvironment and delayed tumor growth. The increased tumor immunogenicity with MHC upregulation improved response to anti-PD-1 blockade. Mechanistically, Blimp1 enforced intratumoral Treg cells with a unique transcriptional program dependent on Eomesodermin (Eomes) expression; deletion of Eomes in Blimp1-deficient Treg cells restored tumor growth and attenuated anti-tumor immunity. CONCLUSIONS These findings revealed Blimp1 as a new critical regulator of tumor-infiltrating Treg cells and a potential target for modulating Treg activity to treat cancer. Our study has also revealed two FCERIA-containing immune signatures as promising diagnostic or prognostic markers for melanoma patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Dixon
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1600 6th Avenue South, CHB 118A, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA.,Graduate Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Lin Luo
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1600 6th Avenue South, CHB 118A, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA.,School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226001, China
| | - Sadashib Ghosh
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1600 6th Avenue South, CHB 118A, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA.,The O'Neal Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Grimes
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1600 6th Avenue South, CHB 118A, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA.,Graduate Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Jonathan D Leavenworth
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Jianmei W Leavenworth
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1600 6th Avenue South, CHB 118A, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA. .,The O'Neal Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA. .,Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA.
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Zhang X, Ge R, Chen H, Ahiafor M, Liu B, Chen J, Fan X. Follicular Helper CD4 + T Cells, Follicular Regulatory CD4 + T Cells, and Inducible Costimulator and Their Roles in Multiple Sclerosis and Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis. Mediators Inflamm 2021; 2021:2058964. [PMID: 34552387 PMCID: PMC8452443 DOI: 10.1155/2021/2058964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Follicular helper CD4+ T (TFH) cells are a specialized subset of effector T cells that play a central role in orchestrating adaptive immunity. TFH cells mainly promote germinal center (GC) formation, provide help to B cells for immunoglobulin affinity maturation and class-switch recombination of B cells, and facilitate production of long-lived plasma cells and memory B cells. TFH cells express the nuclear transcriptional repressor B cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl-6), the chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 5 (CXCR5), the CD28 family members programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) and inducible costimulator (ICOS) and are also responsible for the secretion of interleukin-21 (IL-21) and IL-4. Follicular regulatory CD4+ T (TFR) cells, as a regulatory counterpart of TFH cells, participate in the regulation of GC reactions. TFR cells not only express markers of TFH cells but also express markers of regulatory T (Treg) cells containing FOXP3, glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR), cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4), and IL-10, hence owing to the dual characteristic of TFH cells and Treg cells. ICOS, expressed on activated CD4+ effector T cells, participates in T cell activation, differentiation, and effector process. The expression of ICOS is highest on TFH and TFR cells, indicating it as a key regulator of humoral immunity. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a severe autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system and results in disability, mediated by autoreactive T cells with evolving evidence of a remarkable contribution from humoral responses. This review summarizes recent advances regarding TFH cells, TFR cells, and ICOS, as well as their functional characteristics in relation to MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, 256603 Shandong, China
| | - Ruli Ge
- Department of Neurology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, 256603 Shandong, China
| | - Hongliang Chen
- Department of Neurology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, 256603 Shandong, China
| | - Maxwell Ahiafor
- School of International Studies, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003 Shandong, China
| | - Bin Liu
- Institute for Metabolic & Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, 256603 Shandong, China
| | - Jinbo Chen
- Department of Neurology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, 256603 Shandong, China
| | - Xueli Fan
- Department of Neurology, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, 256603 Shandong, China
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Dixon ML, Leavenworth JD, Leavenworth JW. Lineage Reprogramming of Effector Regulatory T Cells in Cancer. Front Immunol 2021; 12:717421. [PMID: 34394124 PMCID: PMC8355732 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.717421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory T-cells (Tregs) are important for maintaining self-tolerance and tissue homeostasis. The functional plasticity of Tregs is a key feature of this lineage, as it allows them to adapt to different microenvironments, adopt transcriptional programs reflective of their environments and tailor their suppressive capacity in a context-dependent fashion. Tregs, particularly effector Tregs (eTregs), are abundant in many types of tumors. However, the functional and transcriptional plasticity of eTregs in tumors remain largely to be explored. Although depletion or inhibition of systemic Tregs can enhance anti-tumor responses, autoimmune sequelae have diminished the enthusiasm for such approaches. A more effective approach should specifically target intratumoral Tregs or subvert local Treg-mediated suppression. This mini-review will discuss the reported mechanisms by which the stability and suppressive function of tumoral Tregs are modulated, with the focus on eTregs and a subset of eTregs, follicular regulatory T (TFR) cells, and how to harness this knowledge for the future development of new effective cancer immunotherapies that selectively target the tumor local response while sparing the systemic side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Dixon
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States.,Graduate Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Jonathan D Leavenworth
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Jianmei W Leavenworth
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States.,Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States.,The O'Neal Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
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