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Xu Y, Wang X, Wang Y, Guo L, Zhao X, Dong M, Wen J, Wu Z, Li C, Mu W, Guo Y, Bai Z, Xiao X. New compatible pair of TCM: Paeoniae Radix Alba effectively alleviate Psoraleae Fructus-induced liver injury by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Heliyon 2024; 10:e34591. [PMID: 39130485 PMCID: PMC11315180 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective Drug-induced liver injury (DILI), a type of acute inflammation, has sparked significant concern owing to its unpredictability and severity. Psoraleae Fructus (PF), an edible Chinese herb widely used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), causes liver injury. Therefore, the elucidation of the mechanism underlying PF-induced liver injury and the search for more effective means of detoxification using herbal compatibility has become an urgent issue. This study evaluated the hepatoprotective effects of Paeoniae Radix Alba (PRA), a hepatoprotective Chinese medicine, on PF-induced liver injury and explored the underlying mechanisms. Methods A rat model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced immune stress was established to evaluate the hepatotoxicity of PF and the detoxifying effect of PRA. Subsequently, inflammatory pathways were identified using network pharmacology. Finally, the molecular mechanism by which PRA alleviates PF-induced liver injury was validated using an inflammasome activation model in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Results In vivo, hepatocytes in rats treated with LPS + PF exhibited massive inflammatory infiltration and apoptosis, and the expression of liver injury indicators and inflammatory factors was significantly upregulated, which was reversed by PRA pretreatment. Network pharmacology showed that PRA alleviated PF-induced liver injury and was associated with the NOD-like receptor signaling pathway. Moreover, PF directly induced inflammasome activation in LPS-primed BMDMs which in turn induced caspase-1 activation and the secretion of downstream effector cytokines such as IL-1β. PRA pretreatment inhibited PF-induced activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome by mitigating the accumulation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS). Conclusions The present study demonstrates that PRA alleviated PF induced-liver injury by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation. The results of this study are expected to inform the prevention and control of PF-induced hepatotoxicity in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingjie Xu
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- School of Pharmacy, Dali University, Dali, 671000, China
| | - Xianling Wang
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Longxin Guo
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- School of Pharmacy, Dali University, Dali, 671000, China
| | - Xiaomei Zhao
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Ming Dong
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Jincai Wen
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Zhixin Wu
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Chenyi Li
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- School of Pharmacy, Dali University, Dali, 671000, China
| | - Wenqing Mu
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Yuming Guo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Zhaofang Bai
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- School of Pharmacy, Dali University, Dali, 671000, China
- National Key Laboratory of Kidney Diseases, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Xiaohe Xiao
- Senior Department of Hepatology, The Fifth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- China Military Institute of Chinese Materia, The Fifth Medical Centre, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
- School of Pharmacy, Dali University, Dali, 671000, China
- National Key Laboratory of Kidney Diseases, Beijing, 100039, China
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Raizada S, Obukhov AG, Bharti S, Wadhonkar K, Baig MS. Pharmacological targeting of adaptor proteins in chronic inflammation. Inflamm Res 2024:10.1007/s00011-024-01921-5. [PMID: 39052063 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-024-01921-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammation, a biological response of the immune system, can be triggered by various factors such as pathogens, damaged cells, and toxic compounds. These factors can lead to chronic inflammatory responses, potentially causing tissue damage or disease. Both infectious and non-infectious agents, as well as cell damage, activate inflammatory cells and trigger common inflammatory signalling pathways, including NF-κB, MAPK, and JAK-STAT pathways. These pathways are activated through adaptor proteins, which possess distinct protein binding domains that connect corresponding interacting molecules to facilitate downstream signalling. Adaptor molecules have gained widespread attention in recent years due to their key role in chronic inflammatory diseases. METHODS In this review, we explore potential pharmacological agents that can be used to target adaptor molecules in chronic inflammatory responses. A comprehensive analysis of published studies was performed to obtain information on pharmacological agents. CONCLUSION This review highlights the therapeutic strategies involving small molecule inhibitors, antisense oligonucleotide therapy, and traditional medicinal compounds that have been found to inhibit the inflammatory response and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. These strategies primarily block the protein-protein interactions in the inflammatory signaling cascade. Nevertheless, extensive preclinical studies and risk assessment methodologies are necessary to ensure their safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shubhi Raizada
- Department of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering (BSBE), Indian Institute of Technology Indore (IITI), Indore, 453552, MP, India
| | - Alexander G Obukhov
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology & Physiology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Shreya Bharti
- Department of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering (BSBE), Indian Institute of Technology Indore (IITI), Indore, 453552, MP, India
| | - Khandu Wadhonkar
- Department of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering (BSBE), Indian Institute of Technology Indore (IITI), Indore, 453552, MP, India
| | - Mirza S Baig
- Department of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering (BSBE), Indian Institute of Technology Indore (IITI), Indore, 453552, MP, India.
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Zhang J, Liu B, Chen H, Zhang L, Jiang X. Application and Method of Surface Plasmon Resonance Technology in the Preparation and Characterization of Biomedical Nanoparticle Materials. Int J Nanomedicine 2024; 19:7049-7069. [PMID: 39011388 PMCID: PMC11249113 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s468695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) technology, as a powerful analytical tool, plays a crucial role in the preparation, performance evaluation, and biomedical applications of nanoparticles due to its real-time, label-free, and highly sensitive detection capabilities. In the nanoparticle preparation process, SPR technology can monitor synthesis reactions and surface modifications in real-time, optimizing preparation techniques and conditions. SPR enables precise measurement of interactions between nanoparticles and biomolecules, including binding affinities and kinetic parameters, thereby assessing nanoparticle performance. In biomedical applications, SPR technology is extensively used in the study of drug delivery systems, biomarker detection for disease diagnosis, and nanoparticle-biomolecule interactions. This paper reviews the latest advancements in SPR technology for nanoparticle preparation, performance evaluation, and biomedical applications, discussing its advantages and challenges in biomedical applications, and forecasting future development directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyao Zhang
- Core Facilities of West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Beibei Liu
- Core Facilities of West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongying Chen
- Core Facilities of West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingshu Zhang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, People's Republic of China
| | - Xia Jiang
- Division of Biliary Tract Surgery, Department of General Surgery and Regenerative Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, People's Republic of China
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Ying Q, Rong J, Hong M, Heng Z, Zhang Z, Xu Y. The emerging role of adaptor proteins in regulating innate immunity of sepsis. Pharmacol Res 2024; 205:107223. [PMID: 38797359 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2024.107223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Sepsis is a life-threatening syndrome caused by a dysregulated immune response. A large number of adaptor proteins have been found to play a pivotal role in sepsis via protein-protein interactions, thus participating in inflammatory cascades, leading to the generation of numerous inflammatory cytokines, as well as oxidative stress and regulated cell death. Although available strategies for the diagnosis and management of sepsis have improved, effective and specific treatments are lacking. This review focuses on the emerging role of adaptor proteins in regulating the innate immunity of sepsis and evaluates the potential value of adaptor protein-associated therapeutic strategy for sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaoyu Ying
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Jiabing Rong
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Min Hong
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Zetao Heng
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Zhaocai Zhang
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China.
| | - Yinchuan Xu
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310009, China.
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Liao C, Xu F, Yu Z, Ding K, Jia Y. The Novel Role of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Mycotoxin-Induced Toxicological Mechanisms. Vet Sci 2024; 11:291. [PMID: 39057975 PMCID: PMC11281663 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11070291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2024] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several fungi and moulds that exert toxicological effects on animals including immunotoxicity, genotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, and neurotoxicity. However, the toxicological mechanisms of mycotoxins are complex and unclear. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a multimeric cytosolic protein complex composed of the NLRP3 sensor, ASC adapter protein, and caspase-1 effector. Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome plays a crucial role in innate immune defence and homeostatic maintenance. Recent studies have revealed that NLRP3 inflammasome activation is linked to tissue damage and inflammation induced by mycotoxin exposure. Thus, this review summarises the latest advancements in research on the roles of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in the pathogenesis of mycotoxin exposure. The effects of exposure to multiple mycotoxins, including deoxynivalenol, aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, ochratoxin A, and fumonisim B1, on pyroptosis-related factors and inflammation-related factors in vitro and in vivo and the pharmacological inhibition of specific and nonspecific NLRP3 inhibitors are summarized and examined. This comprehensive review contributes to a better understanding of the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in toxicity induced by mycotoxin exposure and provides novel insights for pharmacologically targeting NLRP3 as a novel anti-inflammatory agent against mycotoxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengshui Liao
- Laboratory of Functional Microbiology and Animal Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (C.L.); (F.X.); (Z.Y.); (K.D.)
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Luoyang 471023, China
- The Key Lab of Animal Disease and Public Health, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Fengru Xu
- Laboratory of Functional Microbiology and Animal Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (C.L.); (F.X.); (Z.Y.); (K.D.)
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Luoyang 471023, China
- The Key Lab of Animal Disease and Public Health, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Zuhua Yu
- Laboratory of Functional Microbiology and Animal Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (C.L.); (F.X.); (Z.Y.); (K.D.)
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Luoyang 471023, China
- The Key Lab of Animal Disease and Public Health, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Ke Ding
- Laboratory of Functional Microbiology and Animal Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (C.L.); (F.X.); (Z.Y.); (K.D.)
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Luoyang 471023, China
- The Key Lab of Animal Disease and Public Health, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Yanyan Jia
- Laboratory of Functional Microbiology and Animal Health, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (C.L.); (F.X.); (Z.Y.); (K.D.)
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Animal Disease Prevention and Control, Luoyang 471023, China
- The Key Lab of Animal Disease and Public Health, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
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6
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Patil SP, Kuehn BR. Discovery of Small Molecule Glycolytic Stimulants for Enhanced ApoE Lipidation in Alzheimer's Disease Cell Model. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:491. [PMID: 38675451 PMCID: PMC11054693 DOI: 10.3390/ph17040491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by pathophysiological deposits of extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles of tau. The central role of Aβ in AD pathology is well-established, with its increased deposition attributed mainly to its decreased cerebral clearance. Here, it is noteworthy that apolipoprotein E (ApoE), the most significant risk factor for AD, has been shown to play an isoform-specific role in clearing Aβ deposits (ApoE2 > ApoE3 > ApoE4), owing mainly to its lipidation status. In addition to the pathophysiological Aβ deposits, AD is also characterized by abnormal glucose metabolism, which is a distinct event preceding Aβ deposition. The present study established, for the first time, a possible link between these two major AD etiologies, with glucose metabolism directly influencing ApoE lipidation and its secretion by astrocytes expressing human ApoE4. Specifically, glucose dose-dependently activated liver X receptor (LXR), leading to elevated ABCA1 and ABCG1 protein levels and enhanced ApoE lipidation. Moreover, co-treatment with a glycolytic inhibitor significantly inhibited this LXR activation and subsequent ApoE lipidation, further supporting a central role of glucose metabolism in LXR activation leading to enhanced ApoE lipidation, which may help against AD through potential Aβ clearance. Therefore, we hypothesized that pharmacological agents that can target cellular energy metabolism, specifically aerobic glycolysis, may hold significant therapeutic potential against AD. In this context, the present study also led to the discovery of novel, small-molecule stimulants of astrocytic glucose metabolism, leading to significantly enhanced lipidation status of ApoE4 in astrocytic cells. Three such newly discovered compounds (lonidamine, phenformin, and berberine), owing to their promising cellular effect on the glycolysis-ApoE nexus, warrant further investigation in suitable in vivo models of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin P. Patil
- NanoBio Lab, Widener University, Chester, PA 19013, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Widener University, Chester, PA 19013, USA;
| | - Bella R. Kuehn
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Widener University, Chester, PA 19013, USA;
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Fu R, Zhao L, Guo Y, Qin X, Xu W, Cheng X, Zhang Y, Xu S. AIM2 inflammasome: A potential therapeutic target in ischemic stroke. Clin Immunol 2024; 259:109881. [PMID: 38142900 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2023.109881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke (IS) is a significant global public health issue with a high incidence, disability, and mortality rate. A robust inflammatory cascade with complex and wide-ranging mechanisms occurs following ischemic brain injury. Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes in the cytoplasm that modulate the inflammatory response by releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines and inducing cellular pyroptosis. Among these inflammasomes, the Absent in Melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasome shows the ability to detect a wide range of pathogen DNAs, thereby triggering an inflammatory response. Recent studies have indicated that the aberrant expression of AIM2 inflammasome in various cells is closely associated with the pathological processes of ischemic brain injury. This paper summarizes the expression and regulatory role of AIM2 in CNS and peripheral immune cells and discusses current therapeutic approaches targeting AIM2 inflammasome. These findings aim to serve as a reference for future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Fu
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Linna Zhao
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Translational Research of TCM Prescription and Syndrome, Tianjin, China
| | - Yuying Guo
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Translational Research of TCM Prescription and Syndrome, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaoli Qin
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Wenzhe Xu
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Xueqi Cheng
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Yunsha Zhang
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Shixin Xu
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Translational Research of TCM Prescription and Syndrome, Tianjin, China.
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Luan X, Li G, Ding Y, Sun J, Li X, Jiang W, Shi Y, He M, Guo J, Fan R, Zheng J, Li Y, Duan X, Zhang G. Serum apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase-recruitment domain (ASC) is a novel stroke biomarker. Clin Chim Acta 2024; 553:117734. [PMID: 38128818 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2023.117734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase-recruitment domain (ASC) is a promising stroke biomarker. However, a large study of human serum ASC has not yet to be reported; additionally, the diagnostic value of prehospital concentration and practicality of ASC remains unknown. METHODS We recruited 774 Chinese stroke patients, including 523 with ischemic stroke (IS) and 251 with hemorrhagic stroke (HS) within 14 days following symptom onset in the emergency department, alongside 481 healthy individuals and 64 cognitive impairment patients as controls. Serum ASC concentrations were determined using automated chemiluminescence immunoassay, exploring the relationship between serum ASC concentration and subtypes, severity, and sampling timepoints of stroke. RESULTS ASC concentrations were significantly higher in stroke patients compared with all controls (P < 0.001). HS patients had greater ASC concentrations than IS patients (P < 0.05). With increasing ASC concentration, the proportion of severe cases increased. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) for differentiating between healthy individuals and stroke patients in the hyperacute phase was 0.78; this markedly improved (0.90) when considering samples from healthy individuals and patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) ≤ 3 h from last-known-well (LKW). CONCLUSIONS Serum ASC is a valuable biomarker for stroke differentiation and aids in the clinical diagnosis of stroke severity and subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Luan
- Department of Clinical Diagnosis, Laboratory of Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control of In Vitro Diagnostics, Beijing 100070, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Immunological Reagents Clinical Research, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Guoge Li
- Department of Clinical Diagnosis, Laboratory of Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control of In Vitro Diagnostics, Beijing 100070, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Immunological Reagents Clinical Research, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Yaowei Ding
- Department of Clinical Diagnosis, Laboratory of Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control of In Vitro Diagnostics, Beijing 100070, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Immunological Reagents Clinical Research, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Jialu Sun
- Department of Clinical Diagnosis, Laboratory of Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control of In Vitro Diagnostics, Beijing 100070, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Immunological Reagents Clinical Research, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Xiaotong Li
- Department of Clinical Diagnosis, Laboratory of Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control of In Vitro Diagnostics, Beijing 100070, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Immunological Reagents Clinical Research, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Wencan Jiang
- Department of Clinical Diagnosis, Laboratory of Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control of In Vitro Diagnostics, Beijing 100070, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Immunological Reagents Clinical Research, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Yijun Shi
- Department of Clinical Diagnosis, Laboratory of Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control of In Vitro Diagnostics, Beijing 100070, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Immunological Reagents Clinical Research, Beijing 100070, China
| | - Min He
- Beijing North Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd., NO. A20 Panjiamiao, Fengtai District, Beijing 100076, China
| | - Jinghan Guo
- Beijing North Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd., NO. A20 Panjiamiao, Fengtai District, Beijing 100076, China
| | - Rong Fan
- Beijing North Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd., NO. A20 Panjiamiao, Fengtai District, Beijing 100076, China
| | - Jiageng Zheng
- Beijing North Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd., NO. A20 Panjiamiao, Fengtai District, Beijing 100076, China
| | - Yubin Li
- Beijing North Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd., NO. A20 Panjiamiao, Fengtai District, Beijing 100076, China
| | - Xuejun Duan
- Beijing North Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd., NO. A20 Panjiamiao, Fengtai District, Beijing 100076, China.
| | - Guojun Zhang
- Department of Clinical Diagnosis, Laboratory of Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control of In Vitro Diagnostics, Beijing 100070, China; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Immunological Reagents Clinical Research, Beijing 100070, China.
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Yao J, Sterling K, Wang Z, Zhang Y, Song W. The role of inflammasomes in human diseases and their potential as therapeutic targets. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2024; 9:10. [PMID: 38177104 PMCID: PMC10766654 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01687-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Inflammasomes are large protein complexes that play a major role in sensing inflammatory signals and triggering the innate immune response. Each inflammasome complex has three major components: an upstream sensor molecule that is connected to a downstream effector protein such as caspase-1 through the adapter protein ASC. Inflammasome formation typically occurs in response to infectious agents or cellular damage. The active inflammasome then triggers caspase-1 activation, followed by the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and pyroptotic cell death. Aberrant inflammasome activation and activity contribute to the development of diabetes, cancer, and several cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders. As a result, recent research has increasingly focused on investigating the mechanisms that regulate inflammasome assembly and activation, as well as the potential of targeting inflammasomes to treat various diseases. Multiple clinical trials are currently underway to evaluate the therapeutic potential of several distinct inflammasome-targeting therapies. Therefore, understanding how different inflammasomes contribute to disease pathology may have significant implications for developing novel therapeutic strategies. In this article, we provide a summary of the biological and pathological roles of inflammasomes in health and disease. We also highlight key evidence that suggests targeting inflammasomes could be a novel strategy for developing new disease-modifying therapies that may be effective in several conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yao
- The National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disease, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Keenan Sterling
- Townsend Family Laboratories, Department of Psychiatry, Brain Research Center, The University of British Columbia, 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Zhe Wang
- The National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disease, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Yun Zhang
- The National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disease, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China.
- Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ministry of Education, Beijing, P.R. China.
| | - Weihong Song
- The National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disease, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China.
- Townsend Family Laboratories, Department of Psychiatry, Brain Research Center, The University of British Columbia, 2255 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
- Zhejiang Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders, Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, School of Mental Health and The Affiliated Kangning Hospital, Institute of Aging, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325000, China.
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health), Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325000, China.
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10
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Demirtaş N, Mazlumoğlu BŞ, Palabıyık Yücelik ŞS. Role of NLRP3 Inflammasomes in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Eurasian J Med 2023; 55:98-105. [PMID: 39109852 PMCID: PMC11075041 DOI: 10.5152/eurasianjmed.2023.23349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Large-scale neuronal degeneration in the human brain is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. These diseases range in location and cause, but they all have neurodegenerative characteristics in common. Neurodegenerative diseases, which have almost no efective treatment options, tend to progress irreversibly and cause large socioeconomic and healthcare costs. In recent years, due to the increase in the elderly population, neurodegenerative diseases that have a risk factor with aging are becoming increasingly common. Evidence that neurodegenerative diseases, which have an important place in public health, may be caused by neuroinflammation, has led to comprehensive investigation of neurodegenerative diseases in this regard. Inflammasomes are innate immune system-associated multiproteins that regulate caspase-1 activation and induce inflammation. The NLRP3 inflammasome is the most researched inflammasome and also located in microglia, its activation mediates the maturation and secretion of the inflammatory cytokines interleukin1beta (IL-1β) and IL-18, thus exerting its efects in the central nervous system. Within the scope of this review, experimental and human studies evaluating the role of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and the efects of its inhibition in neurodegenerative diseases frequently encountered in society have been compiled with studies from past to present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagihan Demirtaş
- Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Atatürk University Faculty of Pharmacy, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Büşra Şahin Mazlumoğlu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Atatürk University Faculty of Pharmacy, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Şaziye Sezin Palabıyık Yücelik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Atatürk University Faculty of Pharmacy, Erzurum, Turkey
- Clinical Research, Development and Design Application and Research Center, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
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11
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Ye Z, Li L, Li Y, Hu Y, Wu M, Yu H, Zhao Q, Zhang C, Lu F, Peng X, Sun M, Ganesan K, Qin K, Ye Q. Tou Nong powder obstructs ulcerative colitis through the regulation of NF-κB/NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD inflammasome pyroptotic pathway. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2023; 317:116846. [PMID: 37356744 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.116846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Tou Nong Powder (TNP), a classical Chinese medicinal formula originated from the Chinese Ming Dynasty, has been applied to treat skin ulcers in patients with deficient constitutions. According to theory of traditional Chinese medicine, colonic ulcers share similar pathological conditions with skin ulcers, and consequently, TNP has been applied to ulcerative colitis (UC) safely and effectively. AIM OF STUDY To investigate whether TNP obstructs 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) induced enteric inflammation through regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome and attenuating enteric pyroptosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS Network pharmacology and UPLC-Q-TOF/MS were operated to identify compounds and pharmacological potential targets. The therapeutic effects of TNP were assessed on TNBS induced colitis via general symptoms (disease activity index, colonic weight and length) and histopathological observation. The NF-κB/NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD signaling pathway regulation was investigated by Western blot and real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). RESULTS TNP ameliorates the disease activity index, reverses the increase of colonic weight increase, alleviates colonic shortening and colonic histopathological injury. A decrease in tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), diamine oxidase (DAO), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and endo-toxin (ET) were investigated in peripheral circulation. Moreover, TNP significantly obstructed the NF-κB/NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD signaling pathway. CONCLUSION TNP displays a promising therapeutic effect on UC via suppressing NF-κB/NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD signaling pathway and reducing the expression of IL-1β and IL-18.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Ye
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Linzhen Li
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Yuzheng Li
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Yu Hu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Mingquan Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, Sichuan Orthopedic Hospital, Chengdu, China.
| | - Han Yu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Qian Zhao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Chen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Fating Lu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Xi Peng
- Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University, No. 2025, Chengluo Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Mengmeng Sun
- College of Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Xin Kang Road, Yucheng District, Ya'an, 625014, China.
| | - Kumar Ganesan
- School of Chinese Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
| | - Kaihua Qin
- Health Preservation and Rehabilitation College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
| | - Qiaobo Ye
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
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12
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Sun Z, Song Y, Li J, Li Y, Yu Y, Wang X. Potential biomarker for diagnosis and therapy of sepsis: Lactylation. Immun Inflamm Dis 2023; 11:e1042. [PMID: 37904710 PMCID: PMC10571012 DOI: 10.1002/iid3.1042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION As a disease that has plagued human health for decades, sepsis has so far had no specific diagnostic or therapeutic indicators. The discovery of lactylation modifications not only uncovered the deep-rooted causes of changing between lactate level and pathophysiology and immunology of sepsis, but also reaffirmed the inevitable link between metabolic reprogramming and epigenetic reprogramming in sepsis. Lactylation modification became a potential marker for diagnosis and guiding the treatment of sepsis. AIM In this paper, we will summarize the discovery and regulation of lactylation modifications, discuss the study of lactylation modifications in sepsis, and evaluate their possibility and potential as diagnostic and therapeutic indicators of sepsis. CONCLUSION Lactylation modification is directly regulated by glycolysis and lactate, and inhibition of glycolytic pathway-related enzymes can regulate the level of lactylation modification, and more importantly, lactylation modification can act on these enzymes to regulate their functions and feedback regulate the level of glycolysis, this finding provides more ideas for clinical treatment of sepsis. We use "epigenetic modification", "glycolysis", "lactate", "lactylaiton" and "sepsis" as keywords and search the relevant literature through Pubmed and Web of science up to 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
- ZeXian Sun
- Department of AnesthesiologyTianjin Medical University General HospitalTianjinChina
- Anaesthesiology, The Graduate SchoolTianjin Medical UniversityTianjinChina
| | - Yu Song
- Department of AnesthesiologyTianjin Medical University General HospitalTianjinChina
- Anaesthesiology, The Graduate SchoolTianjin Medical UniversityTianjinChina
| | - Jie Li
- Department of AnesthesiologyTianjin Medical University General HospitalTianjinChina
- Anaesthesiology, The Graduate SchoolTianjin Medical UniversityTianjinChina
| | - Yize Li
- Department of AnesthesiologyTianjin Medical University General HospitalTianjinChina
| | - YongHao Yu
- Department of AnesthesiologyTianjin Medical University General HospitalTianjinChina
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of AnesthesiologyTianjin Medical University General HospitalTianjinChina
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13
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Ke Q, Greenawalt AN, Manukonda V, Ji X, Tisch RM. The regulation of self-tolerance and the role of inflammasome molecules. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1154552. [PMID: 37081890 PMCID: PMC10110889 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1154552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammasome molecules make up a family of receptors that typically function to initiate a proinflammatory response upon infection by microbial pathogens. Dysregulation of inflammasome activity has been linked to unwanted chronic inflammation, which has also been implicated in certain autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus, and related animal models. Classical inflammasome activation-dependent events have intrinsic and extrinsic effects on both innate and adaptive immune effectors, as well as resident cells in the target tissue, which all can contribute to an autoimmune response. Recently, inflammasome molecules have also been found to regulate the differentiation and function of immune effector cells independent of classical inflammasome-activated inflammation. These alternative functions for inflammasome molecules shape the nature of the adaptive immune response, that in turn can either promote or suppress the progression of autoimmunity. In this review we will summarize the roles of inflammasome molecules in regulating self-tolerance and the development of autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Ke
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Ashley Nicole Greenawalt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Veera Manukonda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Xingqi Ji
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Roland Michael Tisch
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- *Correspondence: Roland Michael Tisch,
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Lee SB, Kang JH, Sim EJ, Jung YR, Kim JH, Hillman PF, Nam SJ, Kang TB. Cornus officinalis Seed Extract Inhibits AIM2-Inflammasome Activation and Attenuates Imiquimod-Induced Psoriasis-like Skin Inflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065653. [PMID: 36982727 PMCID: PMC10051512 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The AIM2 inflammasome is an innate immune system component that defends against cytosolic bacteria and DNA viruses, but its aberrant activation can lead to the progression of various inflammatory diseases, including psoriasis. However, there have been few reports of specific inhibitors of AIM2 inflammasome activation. In this study, we aimed to investigate the inhibitory activity of ethanolic extracts of seeds of Cornus officinalis (CO), a herb and food plant used in traditional medicine, on AIM2-inflammasome activation. We found that CO inhibited the release of IL-1β induced by dsDNA in both BMDMs and HaCaT cells, but that it showed no effect on the release of IL-1β induced by NLRP3 inflammasome triggers, such as nigericin and silica, or the NLRC4 inflammasome trigger flagellin. Furthermore, we demonstrated that CO inhibited the cleavage of caspase-1, an inflammasome activation marker, and an upstream event, the translocation and speck formation of ASC. In addition, further experiments and mechanistic investigations revealed that CO can inhibit AIM2 speck formation induced by dsDNA in AIM2-overexpressing HEK293T cells. To verify the correlation in vivo, we investigated the efficacy of CO in an imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis model, which has reported associations with the AIM2 inflammasome. We found that topical application of CO alleviated psoriasis-like symptoms, such as erythema, scaling, and epidermal thickening, in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, CO also significantly decreased IMQ-induced expression of AIM2 inflammasome components, including AIM2, ASC, and caspase-1, and led to the elevation of serum IL-17A. In conclusion, our results suggest that CO may be a valuable candidate for the discovery of AIM2 inhibitors and the regulation of AIM2-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se-Bin Lee
- BK21 Project Team, Department of Applied Life Science, Graduate School, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
| | - Ju-Hui Kang
- BK21 Project Team, Department of Applied Life Science, Graduate School, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Jung Sim
- BK21 Project Team, Department of Applied Life Science, Graduate School, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
| | - Ye-Rin Jung
- BK21 Project Team, Department of Applied Life Science, Graduate School, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Hyeon Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Prima F. Hillman
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Jip Nam
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Bong Kang
- BK21 Project Team, Department of Applied Life Science, Graduate School, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biotechnology, Research Institute of Inflammatory Diseases, Research Institute (RIBHS), College of Biomedical and Health Science, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-043-840-3904
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