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Kowalski K, Marciniak P, Nekaris KAI, Rychlik L. Proteins from shrews' venom glands play a role in gland functioning and venom production. ZOOLOGICAL LETTERS 2024; 10:12. [PMID: 39010181 PMCID: PMC11251227 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-024-00236-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
Venom production has evolved independently many times in the animal kingdom, although it is rare among mammals. Venomous shrews produce venom in their submandibular salivary glands and use it for food acquisition. Only a few toxins have been identified in shrew venoms thus far, and their modes of action require investigation. The biological and molecular processes relating to venom production and gland functioning also remain unknown. To address this gap, we investigated protein content in extracts from venom glands of two shrew species, Neomys fodiens and Sorex araneus, and interpreted their biological functions. Applying a proteomic approach coupled with Gene Ontology enrichment analysis, we identified 313 and 187 putative proteins in venom glands of N. fodiens and S. araneus, respectively. A search of the UniProt database revealed that most of the proteins found in both shrew species were involved in metabolic processes and stress response, while GO enrichment analysis revealed more stress-related proteins in the glands of S. araneus. Molecules that regulate molecule synthesis, cell cycles, and cell divisions are necessary to enable venom regeneration and ensure its effectiveness in predation and food hoarding. The presence of proteins involved in stress response may be the result of shrews' high metabolic rate and the costs of venom replenishment. Some proteins are likely to promote toxin spreading during envenomation and, due to their proteolytic action, reinforce venom toxicity. Finally, finding numerous proteins involved in immune response suggests a potential role of shrew venom gland secretions in protection against pathogens. These findings open up new perspectives for studying biological functions of molecules from shrew venom glands and extend our knowledge on the functioning of eulipotyphlan venom systems. Because the majority of existing and putative venomous mammals use oral venom systems to inject venom into target species, the methods presented here provide a promising avenue for confirming or discovering new taxa of venomous mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Kowalski
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology and Ecology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Lwowska 1, Toruń, 87-100, Poland.
| | - Paweł Marciniak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Developmental Biology, Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, Poznań, 61-614, Poland
| | - K Anne-Isola Nekaris
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Leszek Rychlik
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, Poznań, 61-614, Poland
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2
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Michálek O, King GF, Pekár S. Prey specificity of predatory venoms. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024. [PMID: 38991997 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 07/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Venom represents a key adaptation of many venomous predators, allowing them to immobilise prey quickly through chemical rather than physical warfare. Evolutionary arms races between prey and a predator are believed to be the main factor influencing the potency and composition of predatory venoms. Predators with narrowly restricted diets are expected to evolve specifically potent venom towards their focal prey, with lower efficacy on alternative prey. Here, we evaluate hypotheses on the evolution of prey-specific venom, focusing on the effect of restricted diet, prey defences, and prey resistance. Prey specificity as a potential evolutionary dead end is also discussed. We then provide an overview of the current knowledge on venom prey specificity, with emphasis on snakes, cone snails, and spiders. As the current evidence for venom prey specificity is still quite limited, we also overview the best approaches and methods for its investigation and provide a brief summary of potential model groups. Finally, possible applications of prey-specific toxins are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Michálek
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic
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3
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Yano Y, Fukuoka R, Maturana AD, Ohdachi SD, Kita M. Mammalian neurotoxins, Blarina paralytic peptides, cause hyperpolarization of human T-type Ca channel hCa v3.2 activation. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105066. [PMID: 37468103 PMCID: PMC10493266 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the rare venomous mammals, the short-tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda has been suggested to produce potent neurotoxins in its saliva to effectively capture prey. Several kallikrein-like lethal proteases have been identified, but the active substances of B. brevicauda remained unclear. Here, we report Blarina paralytic peptides (BPPs) 1 and 2 isolated from its submaxillary glands. Synthetic BPP2 showed mealworm paralysis and a hyperpolarization shift (-11 mV) of a human T-type Ca2+ channel (hCav3.2) activation. The amino acid sequences of BPPs were similar to those of synenkephalins, which are precursors of brain opioid peptide hormones that are highly conserved among mammals. However, BPPs rather resembled centipede neurotoxic peptides SLPTXs in terms of disulfide bond connectivity and stereostructure. Our results suggested that the neurotoxin BPPs were the result of convergent evolution as homologs of nontoxic endogenous peptides that are widely conserved in mammals. This finding is of great interest from the viewpoint of the chemical evolution of vertebrate venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Yano
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Ryo Fukuoka
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Andres D Maturana
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Satoshi D Ohdachi
- Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Masaki Kita
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan.
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Fitzpatrick LLJ, Ligabue-Braun R, Nekaris KAI. Slowly Making Sense: A Review of the Two-Step Venom System within Slow ( Nycticebus spp.) and Pygmy Lorises ( Xanthonycticebus spp.). Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:514. [PMID: 37755940 PMCID: PMC10536643 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the early 2000s, studies of the evolution of venom within animals have rapidly expanded, offering new revelations on the origins and development of venom within various species. The venomous mammals represent excellent opportunities to study venom evolution due to the varying functional usages, the unusual distribution of venom across unrelated mammals and the diverse variety of delivery systems. A group of mammals that excellently represents a combination of these traits are the slow (Nycticebus spp.) and pygmy lorises (Xanthonycticebus spp.) of south-east Asia, which possess the only confirmed two-step venom system. These taxa also present one of the most intriguing mixes of toxic symptoms (cytotoxicity and immunotoxicity) and functional usages (intraspecific competition and ectoparasitic defence) seen in extant animals. We still lack many pieces of the puzzle in understanding how this venom system works, why it evolved what is involved in the venom system and what triggers the toxic components to work. Here, we review available data building upon a decade of research on this topic, focusing especially on why and how this venom system may have evolved. We discuss that research now suggests that venom in slow lorises has a sophisticated set of multiple uses in both intraspecific competition and the potential to disrupt the immune system of targets; we suggest that an exudate diet reveals several toxic plants consumed by slow and pygmy lorises that could be sequestered into their venom and which may help heal venomous bite wounds; we provide the most up-to-date visual model of the brachial gland exudate secretion protein (BGEsp); and we discuss research on a complement component 1r (C1R) protein in saliva that may solve the mystery of what activates the toxicity of slow and pygmy loris venom. We conclude that the slow and pygmy lorises possess amongst the most complex venom system in extant animals, and while we have still a lot more to understand about their venom system, we are close to a breakthrough, particularly with current technological advances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Lucy Joscelyne Fitzpatrick
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun
- Department of Pharmacosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Avenida Sarmento Leite 245, Porto Alegre 90050-170, Brazil;
| | - K. Anne-Isola Nekaris
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
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Paolino G, Di Nicola MR, Avella I, Mercuri SR. Venomous Bites, Stings and Poisoning by European Vertebrates as an Overlooked and Emerging Medical Problem: Recognition, Clinical Aspects and Therapeutic Management. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:1228. [PMID: 37374011 DOI: 10.3390/life13061228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Europe presents a high number of venomous and poisonous animals able to elicit medically relevant symptoms in humans. However, since most of the accidents involving venomous or poisonous animals in Europe are unreported, their incidence and morbidity are severely overlooked. Here we provide an overview of the European vertebrate species of greatest toxicological interest, the clinical manifestations their toxins can cause, and their treatment. We report the clinical symptoms induced by envenomations and poisoning caused by reptiles, fishes, amphibians and mammals in Europe, ranging from mild, local symptoms (e.g., erythema, edema) to systemic and potentially deadly. The present work constitutes a tool for physicians to recognize envenomation/poisoning symptoms caused by the most medically relevant European vertebrates and to decide which approach is the most appropriate to treat them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Paolino
- Unit of Dermatology and Cosmetology, I.R.C.C.S. San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
- Unit of Clinical Dermatology, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Matteo Riccardo Di Nicola
- Unit of Dermatology and Cosmetology, I.R.C.C.S. San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
- Asociación Herpetológica Española, Apartado de Correos 191, 28911 Leganés, Spain
| | - Ignazio Avella
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, Universidade do Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
| | - Santo Raffaele Mercuri
- Unit of Dermatology and Cosmetology, I.R.C.C.S. San Raffaele Hospital, Via Olgettina 60, 20132 Milan, Italy
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Fitzpatrick LLJ, Nijman V, Ligabue-Braun R, Nekaris KAI. The Fast and the Furriest: Investigating the Rate of Selection on Mammalian Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120842. [PMID: 36548740 PMCID: PMC9782207 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of venom and the selection pressures that act on toxins have been increasingly researched within toxinology in the last two decades, in part due to the exceptionally high rates of diversifying selection observed in animal toxins. In 2015, Sungar and Moran proposed the 'two-speed' model of toxin evolution linking evolutionary age of a group to the rates of selection acting on toxins but due to a lack of data, mammals were not included as less than 30 species of venomous mammal have been recorded, represented by elusive species which produce small amounts of venom. Due to advances in genomics and transcriptomics, the availability of toxin sequences from venomous mammals has been increasing. Using branch- and site-specific selection models, we present the rates of both episodic and pervasive selection acting upon venomous mammal toxins as a group for the first time. We identified seven toxin groups present within venomous mammals, representing Chiroptera, Eulipotyphla and Monotremata: KLK1, Plasminogen Activator, Desmallipins, PACAP, CRiSP, Kunitz Domain One and Kunitz Domain Two. All but one group (KLK1) was identified by our results to be evolving under both episodic and pervasive diversifying selection with four toxin groups having sites that were implicated in the fitness of the animal by TreeSAAP (Selection on Amino Acid Properties). Our results suggest that venomous mammal ecology, behaviour or genomic evolution are the main drivers of selection, although evolutionary age may still be a factor. Our conclusion from these results indicates that mammalian toxins are following the two-speed model of selection, evolving predominately under diversifying selection, fitting in with other younger venomous taxa like snakes and cone snails-with high amounts of accumulating mutations, leading to more novel adaptions in their toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Lucy Joscelyne Fitzpatrick
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - Vincent Nijman
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun
- Department of Pharmacosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Avenida Sarmento Leite 245, Porto Alegre 90050-130, Brazil
| | - K. Anne-Isola Nekaris
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
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Kowalski K, Marciniak P, Rychlik L. A new, widespread venomous mammal species: hemolytic activity of Sorex araneus venom is similar to that of Neomys fodiens venom. ZOOLOGICAL LETTERS 2022; 8:7. [PMID: 35672837 PMCID: PMC9172195 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-022-00191-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Venom production has evolved independently many times in the animal kingdom, although it is rare among mammals. Venomous shrews produce toxins in their salivary glands and use their venoms to hunt and store prey. Thus far, the toxicity and composition of shrew venoms have been studied only in two shrew species: the northern short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda, and the Eurasian water shrew, Neomys fodiens. Venom of N. fodiens has potent paralytic activity which enables hunting and storing prey in a comatose state. Here, we assayed the hemolytic effects of extracts from salivary glands of N. fodiens and the common shrew, Sorex araneus, in erythrocytes of Pelophylax sp. frogs. We identified toxins in shrew venom by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS Our results prove, confirming a suggestion made four centuries ago, that S. araneus is venomous. We also provide the first experimental evidence that shrew venoms produce potent hemolysis in frog erythrocytes. We found significant concentration-dependent effects of venoms of N. fodiens and S. araneus on hemolysis of red blood cells evaluated as hemoglobin release. Treatment of erythrocytes with N. fodiens venom at concentrations of 1.0 and 0.5 mg/ml and with S. araneus venom at concentration of 1.0 mg/ml caused an increased release of hemoglobin. Our findings confirm that hemolytic effects of N. fodiens venom are stronger than those produced by S. araneus venom. We identified four toxins in the venom of N. fodiens: proenkephalin, phospholipase A2 (PLA2), a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein (ADAM) and lysozyme C, as well as a non-toxic hyaluronidase. In the venom of S. araneus we found five toxins: proenkephalin, kallikrein 1-related peptidase, beta-defensin, ADAM and lysozyme C. PLA2 and ADAMs are likely to produce hemolysis in frog erythrocytes. CONCLUSIONS Our results clearly show that shrew venoms possess hemolytic action that may allow them to hunt larger prey. Since a member of the numerous genus Sorex is venomous, it is likely that venom production among shrews and other eulipotyphlans may be more widespread than it has previously been assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Kowalski
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology and Ecology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Lwowska 1, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
| | - Paweł Marciniak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Developmental Biology, Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
| | - Leszek Rychlik
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
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Trim CM, Byrne LJ, Trim SA. Utilisation of compounds from venoms in drug discovery. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2021; 60:1-66. [PMID: 34147202 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmch.2021.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Difficult drug targets are becoming the normal course of business in drug discovery, sometimes due to large interacting surfaces or only small differences in selectivity regions. For these, a different approach is merited: compounds lying somewhere between the small molecule and the large antibody in terms of many properties including stability, biodistribution and pharmacokinetics. Venoms have evolved over millions of years to be complex mixtures of stable molecules derived from other somatic molecules, the stability comes from the pressure to be ready for delivery at a moment's notice. Snakes, spiders, scorpions, jellyfish, wasps, fish and even mammals have evolved independent venom systems with complex mixtures in their chemical arsenal. These venom-derived molecules have been proven to be useful tools, such as for the development of antihypotensive angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and have also made successful drugs such as Byetta® (Exenatide), Integrilin® (Eptifibatide) and Echistatin. Only a small percentage of the available chemical space from venoms has been investigated so far and this is growing. In a new era of biological therapeutics, venom peptides present opportunities for larger target engagement surface with greater stability than antibodies or human peptides. There are challenges for oral absorption and target engagement, but there are venom structures that overcome these and thus provide substrate for engineering novel molecules that combine all desired properties. Venom researchers are characterising new venoms, species, and functions all the time, these provide great substrate for solving the challenges presented by today's difficult targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol M Trim
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Social Sciences, Natural and Applied Sciences, School of Psychology and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom
| | - Lee J Byrne
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Social Sciences, Natural and Applied Sciences, School of Psychology and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom
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Tse YT, Calede JJM. Quantifying the link between craniodental morphology and diet in the Soricidae using geometric morphometrics. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Dietary adaptations have often been associated with heightened taxonomic diversity. Yet, one of the most species-rich mammalian families, the Soricidae, is often considered to be ecologically and morphologically relatively homogenous. Here, we use geometric morphometrics to capture skull and dentary morphology in a broad sample of shrew species and test the hypothesis that morphological variation among shrew species reflects adaptations to food hardness. Our analyses demonstrate that morphology is associated with dietary ecology. Species that consume hard food items are larger and have specific morphological adaptions including an anteroposteriorly expanded parietal, an anteroposteriorly short and dorsoventrally tall rostrum, a mediolaterally wide palate, buccolingually wide cheek teeth, a large coronoid process and a dorsoventrally short jaw joint. The masseter muscle does not appear to play an important role in the strong bite force of shrews and the dentary is a better indicator of ecology than the skull. Our phylogenetic flexible discriminant function analysis suggests that the evolutionary history of shrews has shaped their morphology, canalizing dietary adaptations and enabling functional equivalence whereby different morphologies achieve similar dietary performances. Our work makes possible future studies of niche partitioning among sympatric species as well as the investigation of the diet of extinct soricids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuen Ting Tse
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, OH, USA
| | - Jonathan J M Calede
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, OH, USA
- The Ohio State University at Marion, Marion, Ohio, OH, USA
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Venom Use in Eulipotyphlans: An Evolutionary and Ecological Approach. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13030231. [PMID: 33810196 PMCID: PMC8004749 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13030231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Venomousness is a complex functional trait that has evolved independently many times in the animal kingdom, although it is rare among mammals. Intriguingly, most venomous mammal species belong to Eulipotyphla (solenodons, shrews). This fact may be linked to their high metabolic rate and a nearly continuous demand of nutritious food, and thus it relates the venom functions to facilitation of their efficient foraging. While mammalian venoms have been investigated using biochemical and molecular assays, studies of their ecological functions have been neglected for a long time. Therefore, we provide here an overview of what is currently known about eulipotyphlan venoms, followed by a discussion of how these venoms might have evolved under ecological pressures related to food acquisition, ecological interactions, and defense and protection. We delineate six mutually nonexclusive functions of venom (prey hunting, food hoarding, food digestion, reducing intra- and interspecific conflicts, avoidance of predation risk, weapons in intraspecific competition) and a number of different subfunctions for eulipotyphlans, among which some are so far only hypothetical while others have some empirical confirmation. The functions resulting from the need for food acquisition seem to be the most important for solenodons and especially for shrews. We also present several hypotheses explaining why, despite so many potentially beneficial functions, venomousness is rare even among eulipotyphlans. The tentativeness of many of the arguments presented in this review highlights our main conclusion, i.e., insights regarding the functions of eulipotyphlan venoms merit additional study.
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11
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Kowalski K, Marciniak P, Rychlik L. Individual variation in cardiotoxicity of parotoid secretion of the common toad, Bufo bufo, depends on body size - first results. ZOOLOGY 2020; 142:125822. [PMID: 32862084 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2020.125822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Anurans secrete a wide diversity of toxins from skin glands to defend themselves against predators and pathogens. Bufonids produce potent poison in parotoid macroglands located in the postorbital region. Parotoid secretion is a rich source of bioactive compounds with cardiotoxic, cytotoxic and hemolytic activity. Poison content and toxicity may vary between species, populations, and among conspecifics inhabiting the same area. In the present paper, we pre-analyzed the individual variation in cardiotoxicity of parotoid extract of common toads (Bufo bufo Linnaeus, 1758) and impact of body mass (BM), snout to vent length (SVL), and body condition (BC) of toad on the poison toxicity. We hypothesized that large toads produce poison with higher cardiotoxicity than smaller ones. Parotoid extract was fractionated by reverse phase chromatography, and then in vitro physiological bioassays were carried out on the semi-isolated hearts of the mealworm beetle (Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus, 1758) to determine cardiotoxicity of the whole poison and separated fractions. Generalized linear mixed models were used to determine effects of BM, SVL, and BC on the poison toxicity. We recorded significant changes in the insect heart contractility after treatment with the whole poison and separated fractions. We found an individual variation in cardiotoxicity of the parotoid extract which was explained by the body size of toad. Poison of smaller toads displayed a negative, whereas poison of larger toads positive, chronotropic effect on the heart contractility. Thus, we conclude that the effectiveness of parotoid secretion in repelling predators may vary depending on the toad individual size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Kowalski
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology and Ecology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Lwowska 1, Toruń, 87-100, Poland; Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, Poznań, 61-614, Poland.
| | - Paweł Marciniak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Development, Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, Poznań, 61-614, Poland.
| | - Leszek Rychlik
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, Poznań, 61-614, Poland.
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Hanf ZR, Chavez AS. A Comprehensive Multi-Omic Approach Reveals a Relatively Simple Venom in a Diet Generalist, the Northern Short-Tailed Shrew, Blarina brevicauda. Genome Biol Evol 2020; 12:1148-1166. [PMID: 32520994 PMCID: PMC7486961 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evaa115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals that use venom to feed on a wide diversity of prey may evolve a complex mixture of toxins to target a variety of physiological processes and prey-defense mechanisms. Blarina brevicauda, the northern short-tailed shrew, is one of few venomous mammals, and is also known to eat evolutionarily divergent prey. Despite their complex diet, earlier proteomic and transcriptomic studies of this shrew's venom have only identified two venom proteins. Here, we investigated with comprehensive molecular approaches whether B. brevicauda venom is more complex than previously understood. We generated de novo assemblies of a B. brevicauda genome and submaxillary-gland transcriptome, as well as sequenced the salivary proteome. Our findings show that B. brevicauda's venom composition is simple relative to their broad diet and is likely limited to seven proteins from six gene families. Additionally, we explored expression levels and rate of evolution of these venom genes and the origins of key duplications that led to toxin neofunctionalization. We also found three proteins that may be involved in endogenous self-defense. The possible synergism of the toxins suggests that vertebrate prey may be the main target of the venom. Further functional assays for all venom proteins on both vertebrate and invertebrate prey would provide further insight into the ecological relevance of venom in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachery R Hanf
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University
| | - Andreas S Chavez
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University
- Translational Data Analytics Institute, The Ohio State University
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13
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Individual behavior, behavioral stability, and pace of life within and among five shrew species. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-019-2793-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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14
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Miguel SRPDS, Ligabue-Braun R. Hypothesis: Compulsive hoarding as an atavism. Med Hypotheses 2019; 130:109273. [PMID: 31383336 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2019.109273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In this hypothesis paper, we propose that hoarding disorder may be an ancestral mammalian behavior, possibly hard-wired but dormant in present-day humans, that can be activated by traumatic experiences. To support this claim, we describe hoarding in ancestral mammals and provide examples of recurrence of traits, or atavisms, in humans and other mammals, highlighting its implications for neuropsychiatric diseases. We highlight the potential of using shrews as animal models for hoarding behavior and, considering the current knowledge on the molecular underpinnings of the disorder, we also point to limitations of the proposed connection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun
- Graduate Program in Biological Sciences (PPGBio) and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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15
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Drukewitz SH, von Reumont BM. The Significance of Comparative Genomics in Modern Evolutionary Venomics. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
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16
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Moya-Costa R, Cuenca-Bescós G, Bauluz B. Protocol for the reconstruction of micromammals from fossils. Two case studies: The skulls of Beremendia fissidens and Dolinasorex glyphodon. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0213174. [PMID: 30893322 PMCID: PMC6426217 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We have developed a protocol for reconstructing 3D models of the skulls of extinct species of small mammals. For the first time, the reconstruction uses fragments of fossils from a mixture of different specimens and from related extant species. We use free software and commercial computers to make the process reproducible and usable for the scientific community. We present a semi-quantitative protocol to face the problem of making 3D reconstructions of fossil species that are incomplete in the fossil record and/or represented by a mixture of different individuals, as usually occurs with small vertebrates. Therefore this approach is useful when no complete skull is available. The protocol combines the use of microCT scan technology with a subsequent computer treatment using different software tools for 3D reconstruction from microCT and 3D design and printing (e.g. Fiji, SPIERS, Meshlab, Meshmixer) in a defined order. This kind of free and relatively simple software, plus the detailed description, makes this protocol practicable for researchers who do not necessarily have great deal of experience in working with 3D. As an example, we have performed virtual reconstructions of the skulls of two species of insectivore small mammals (Eulipotyphla): Beremendia fissidens and Dolinasorex glyphodon. The resulting skulls, plus models of the extant shrews Blarina brevicauda, Neomys fodiens, Crocidura russula and Sorex coronatus, make it possible to compare characteristics that can only be observed by means of microCT 3D reconstructions, and given the characteristics of the material, using this protocol. Among the characters we can compare are the position of the mandibles, the spatial relations among all the teeth, the shape of the snout and, in general, all parameters related with the anatomy of the rostrum. Moreover, these reconstructions can be used in different types of context: for anatomical purposes, especially to see internal features or characteristics at whole-skull scale, for bioengineering, animation, or other techniques that need a digital model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Moya-Costa
- Aragosaurus-IUCA, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Gloria Cuenca-Bescós
- Aragosaurus-IUCA, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Blanca Bauluz
- Aragosaurus-IUCA, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
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Kowalski K, Rychlik L. The role of venom in the hunting and hoarding of prey differing in body size by the Eurasian water shrew, Neomys fodiens. J Mammal 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyy013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Kowalski
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska, Poznań, Poland
| | - Leszek Rychlik
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska, Poznań, Poland
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18
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Kowalski K, Marciniak P, Rosiński G, Rychlik L. Toxic activity and protein identification from the parotoid gland secretion of the common toad Bufo bufo. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 205:43-52. [PMID: 29382576 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2018.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Anuran toxins released from the skin glands are involved in defence against predators and microorganisms. Secretion from parotoid macroglands of bufonid toads is a rich source of bioactive compounds with the cytotoxic, cardiotoxic and hemolytic activity. Bufadienolides are considered the most toxic components of the toad poison, whereas the protein properties are largely unknown. In the present work, we analysed the cardio-, myo-, and neurotropic activity of extract and the selected proteins from Bufo bufo parotoids in in vitro physiological bioassays carried out on two standard model organisms: beetles and frogs. Our results demonstrate a strong cardioactivity of B. bufo gland extract. The toad poison stimulates (by 16%) the contractility of the insect heart and displays the cardioinhibitory effect on the frog heartbeat frequency (a 27% decrease), coupled with an irreversible cardiac arrest. The gland extract also exhibits significant myotropic properties (a 10% decrease in the muscle contraction force), whereas its neuroactivity remains low (a 4% decrease in the nerve conduction velocity). Among identified peptides present in the B. bufo parotoid extract are serine proteases, muscle creatine kinase, phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte protein, etc. Some proteins contribute to the cardioinhibitory effect. Certain compounds display the paralytic (myo- and neurotropic) properties. As the toad gland extract exhibits a strong cardiotoxic activity, we conclude that the poison is a potent agent capable of slaying a predator. Our results also provide the guides for the use of toad poison-peptides in therapeutics and new drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Kowalski
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, Poznań 61-614, Poland.
| | - Paweł Marciniak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Development, Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, Poznań 61-614, Poland.
| | - Grzegorz Rosiński
- Department of Animal Physiology and Development, Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, Poznań 61-614, Poland.
| | - Leszek Rychlik
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, Poznań 61-614, Poland.
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